Deny A. Kwary http://www.kwary.net Airlangga University DIGLOSSIA Deny A. Kwary http://www.kwary.net Airlangga University

Early Definition (1959)  p.88 Ferguson: Diglossia is a relatively stable language situation, in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language, there is a very divergent, highly codified superposed variety… which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes.

The Features of Diglossia Function Prestige Literary heritage Acquisition Standardization Stability Grammar Lexicon Phonology

1. Function H L Sermon X Instruction to servants Speech in parliament University lecture Conversation with friends Newspaper editorial Etc.

2. Prestige The speakers regard H as superior to L in a number of respects. E.g. H is considered more educated, more beautiful, more logical, better able to express important thoughts, etc.

3. Literary Heritage There is a sizable body of written literature in H which is held in high esteem by the speech community.

4. Acquisition Adults use L in speaking to children and children use L in speaking to one another. The actual learning of H is chiefly accomplished by the means of formal education.

5. Standardization There are studies or books on grammars, dictionaries, treatises on pronunciation, styles, and so on, of the H. There is an established norm for pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary which allows variation only within certain limits.

6. Stability Diglossia typically persists at least several centuries, and evidence in some cases seems to show that it can last well over a thousand years.

7. Grammar H has grammatical categories not present in L and has an inflectional system of nouns and verbs which is much reduced or totally absent in L. E.g. Standard German has four cases in the noun; Swiss German has only three cases in the noun.

8. Lexicon H includes in its total lexicon technical terms and learned expressions which have no regular L equivalents, since the subjects involved are rarely if ever discussed in pure L. L includes in its total lexicon popular expressions and the names of very homely objects or objects of very localized distribution which have no regular H equivalents, since the subjects involved are rarely if ever discussed in pure H.

9. Phonology The sound systems if H and L constitutes a single phonological structure of which the L phonology is the basic system. Note: Ferguson states, “It may seem difficult to offer any generalization on the relationships between the phonology on H and L in diglossia in view of the diversity of data.

Fishman (1972) + – Diglossia Bilingualism +B +D +B –D –B +D –B –D Examples: +B +D : Paraguay (Spanish and Guarani) +B - D : Belgium (German and French) - B +D : Russian - B - D : Hypothetical

Overlapping Diglossia and Triglossia (Mkifili, 1978) A research on the use of English, Swahili and local language. English Swahili Local language

Poliglossia (Platt, 1977) A Research in Malaysia Formal English Malay Mandarin Malay-English Other Chinese languages Colloquial Malay