Preparing Students for College: What High Schools Are Doing and How Their Actions Influence Ninth Graders’ College Attitudes, Aspirations, and Plans

Introduction The U.S. is now 16th out of 36 developed countries in the percentage of workers age 25 through 34 who hold a postsecondary credential. 1 Boosting postsecondary educational attainment is crucial in order to ensure America’s continued economic competitiveness. Postsecondary education is also important for the well-being of individual citizens: Americans with a Bachelor’s or advanced college degree have higher average earnings and face lower levels of unemployment than individuals with only a high school diploma. It is thus essential to facilitate students’ transition from high school to postsecondary education. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2011). Education at a Glance 2011: Highlights. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved May 17, 2012, from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/61/5/48631550.pdf.

Research Questions What are students' trajectories from the beginning of high school into postsecondary education, the workforce, and beyond? What majors and careers do students decide to pursue when, why, and how? How do students choose science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) courses, majors, and careers? See the National Center for Education Statistic’s website for more information: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/hsls09/

High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 Data High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 Nationally representative, longitudinal study of over 23,000 9th grade students enrolled in 944 public and private schools Follows students through high school, postsecondary education, and into the workforce Surveyed students, parents, school counselors, school administrators and math and science teachers Incorporated a mathematics assessment which tested algebra, problem-solving, and reasoning skills

High School Longitudinal Study Timeline Fall 2009 (9th grade) Math Assessment and Surveys Spring 2012 (11th grade) Math Assessment and Surveys Spring 2013 (12th grade) Student/Parent Questionnaire Expected High School Graduation 2016 Follow Up # 4 Expected College Graduation 2021 Follow Up # 5 This report analyzes data collected during the first wave of the study in 2009.

Part I High Schools’ College-Level Offerings and Counseling Characteristics

College-Level Course Offerings

College-Level Courses, by High School Type Public schools were significantly more likely than their private school counterparts to offer IB and dual enrollment programs. Schools that participate in IB programs provide students with at least six college-level courses taught by high school faculty. Students receive college credit by passing subject exams administered to IB students worldwide. See: “What is the IB Diploma Programme?” A guide to the International Baccalaureate® (IB) Diploma Programme for universities and Colleges. The International Baccalaureate Organization. Retrieved August 14, 2012, from http://www.ibo.org/diploma/recognition/guide/slideb.cfm. Unlike IB programs where schools must commit to offering at least six college-level courses, schools can choose to administer as few or as many of the 34 AP courses available as they like. high school teachers provide the instruction and students earn college credit by passing the exam administered to all AP students for that subject. See: “AP: About.” The College Board. Retrieved August 14, 2012, from http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/about.html. While IB and AP courses are generally taught at high schools and are designed for high school students, dual enrollment courses are generally taught at colleges and are designed for college students. High school students typically enroll in these college courses along with other college students. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

College-Level Courses, by Four-Year College-Going Rate High schools’ likelihood of offering college-level courses was associated with the rate at which graduating seniors matriculated at four-year, bachelor degree-granting colleges in the previous school year. Specifically, all three types of college-level offerings were most commonly provided by schools in which 34%-67% of their graduates attend four year colleges. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

College-Level Courses, by School Size The likelihood of providing IB and AP course offerings—not dual enrollment—increased with school size. This may result from the fact that dual enrollment programs have relatively low barriers of entry (i.e. schools do not have to obtain their own faculty or find enough students to fill an entire class). ‡ Reporting standards not met. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Public Schools Offering AP Courses On Site and College-Prep Programs, by Percentage of Students Receiving Free or Reduced-price Lunch Public schools with low percentages of the student body receiving free or reduced price lunch were most likely to offer AP courses on site. By contrast, schools with a high proportion of low-income students were the most likely to offer college-prep programs like Upward Bound, GEAR UP, AVID, and MESA. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Counselors’ Time

Median Caseload Per School Counselor, by High School Type For the overwhelming majority of private high schools, the median caseload per school counselor was between 0-250. Public school counselors, however, tended to face much higher caseloads. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Median Caseload Per School Counselor, by Four-Year College-Going Rate Schools with low and high college matriculation rates were more likely than schools with middle-level rates to have caseloads of 250 students or fewer per counselor. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Median Caseload Per School Counselor, by School Size As school size grows, the percentage of schools with the lowest student to counselor ratio (0 to 250) declines while the percentage of schools with the highest ratio (450+) increases. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Due to small sample sizes, caseloads of 0 to 250 and 251 to 350 were combined for schools with more than 2,000 students. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

High School Characteristic Median Counselor Caseload, by High School Characteristics High School Characteristic Caseload School Type Public 299 Private 106 Four-Year College-Going Rate Low 261 Middle 323 High 234 School Size 0-500 183 501-1,000 293 1,001-1,500 346 1,501-2,000 391 2,000+ 423 Median counselor caseload rises monotonically as school size increases. Notes: Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Time Counseling Staff Spent on Various Counseling Activities College readiness counseling constitutes a large portion of counselors’ time. Notably, however, 20% of counselors spent less than a tenth of their time assisting students in this way. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Time Counseling Staff Spent Assisting Students with College Readiness, Selection, and Applications, by Four-Year College-Going Rate The distribution of time spent on college counseling differed by four-year college-going rates. Specifically, schools with high college-going rates were significantly more likely to have counseling staff that spent more than 50% of their time on college counseling. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Counselors’ Attitudes

Percentage of Counselors Reporting that their Program’s Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Goals are to Help Students The majority of counselors reported their primary goal was to prepare students for postsecondary schooling. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Emphasis Counseling Program Places on Preparing Students for Postsecondary Schooling, by Four-Year College-Going Rate The priority that counseling staff placed on postsecondary preparation differed by four-year college-going rate. As college-going rate increased, the percentage of counselors indicating that postsecondary preparation was their program’s first goal rose. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Due to small sample sizes, "third goal" and "fourth goal" categories were combined for high schools with high four-year college-going rates. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Emphasis Counseling Program Places on Preparing Students for Postsecondary Schooling, by Percentage of Hours Counseling Staff Spent on College Readiness, Selection, and Applications Whether counselors considered preparation for college a top priority was related to the amount of time they spent on college counseling. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors Who Agreed or Strongly Agreed that Counselors at their School: Nearly all counselors agreed or strongly agreed that their colleagues “set high standards for students’ learning,” “believe all students can do well” and “work hard to make sure all students learn.” Interestingly, 13% of counselors agreed that counselors in their school “have given up on some students.” Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors Who Agree or Strongly Agree that Counselors at their School Have Given Up on Some Students, by Four-Year College-Going Rate Although responses to this statement did not differ by high school type, they did differ by college-going rate. Counselors from schools in which a high proportion of students intend to enroll in college were 27 percentage points more likely than schools with low college-going rates to strongly disagree that their colleagues had “given up on some students.” Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Counselors’ Actions

Career or Education Plan Requirements, by High School Type Although 80% of all schools require students to develop a career or education plan, a significantly higher number of public schools mandate such plans than their private school counterparts. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Career or Education Plan Requirements, by Four-Year College-Going Rate Of all the schools which mandate students to develop a career or education plan, the institutions with the highest college-going rates were the most likely to require a parent signature. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors that Report their High School Takes the Following Steps to Assist Students with the Transition to College, by High School Type Most counselors reported they assist students with financial aid, consult with postsecondary representatives, hold or participate in college fairs, and lead sessions on the transition to college for students or parents. Public high schools were significantly more likely than private schools to enroll students in a college prep program and to assist pupils with finding financial aid. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. + Also includes programs like Gear Up, AVID, and MESA. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors that Report their High School Takes the Following Steps to Assist Students with the Transition to College, by Four-Year College-Going Rate The percentage of schools which offer college prep programs as well as hold or participate in college fairs differed by the four-year college-going rate. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. + Also includes programs like Gear Up, AVID, and MESA. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors that Report their High School Takes the Following Steps to Assist Students with the Transition to College, by School Size Larger schools were more likely to offer the following: college prep programs, programs encouraging students to consider postsecondary education, information sessions, and college fairs. Nearly all schools, however, regardless of size have counselors who assist with financial aid applications and consult with postsecondary representatives about requirements and qualifications. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. + Also includes programs like Gear Up, AVID, and MESA. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors that Report their High School Takes the Following Steps to Assist Students with the Transition to College, by Percentage of Hispanic Students in School’s Student Body Schools with student bodies comprised of more than 50% Hispanic students were more likely to offer college prep programs, assist with financial aid applications, and establish programs for encouraging students to attend postsecondary education than institutions with fewer Hispanic pupils. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. + Also includes programs like Gear Up, AVID, and MESA. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Counselors that Report their High School Takes the Following Steps to Assist Students with the Transition to College, by Percentage of Black Students in School’s Student Body Schools with student bodies comprised of more than 50% Black students were more likely to offer college prep programs, organize college visits, and assist with financial aid applications than institutions with lower concentrations of Black students. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. + Also includes programs like Gear Up, AVID, and MESA. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Students’ Interactions with Counselors

Percentage of Students Who Reported They Talked About College with: Ninth grade students were more likely to speak with their mother or father about college than a school counselor. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Percentage of Students Who Reported They Talk About College with their High School Counselor, by High School Characteristics There was no statistically significant difference in the percentage of students who spoke with their high school counselor about college by high school type or four-year college-going rate. However, students from schools with a majority Black student population were more likely to discuss college with their counselor than students from schools with fewer Black pupils. Notes: Estimates are weighted by W1SCHOOL. Low, middle, and high categories represent four-year college-going rates of 0-33, 34-67, and 68-100 percent, respectively. Differences that are statistically significant at the .05 level or below are indicated using a *. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Part II Counseling Characteristics’ Role in Ninth Graders’ College Attitudes and Plans

Background Analysis focused on three outcomes: perceptions of affordability intention to enroll in a Bachelor’s program plans to take the SAT/ACT The literature indicates that parents are extremely influential in shaping students’ attitudes, aspirations, and college plans.2 Students with parents who have a Bachelor’s or advanced degree are significantly more likely to enroll in college. High schools’ counseling programs may thus have less of an impact on such students. Counseling programs have the potential to be the most beneficial for students whose parents do not have a Bachelor’s degree. Outcomes for the general student population as well as “first-generation college students” were both analyzed. 2. Bozick, R., and Lauff, E. (2007) Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002): A First Look at the Initial Postsecondary Experiences of the High School Sophomore Class of 2002 (NCES 2008-308). US Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

Students’ Perceptions of College Affordability

Logistic Regression Results: Students’ Perception of College Affordability The following had a positive and significant effect on students’ perceptions of affordability : school type student’s Spring 2009 standardized math score student’s race/ethnicity parents’ highest degree attained Three of variables (attending a private high school, math score, parent’s education) had a positive effect. However, students in the “other race” category (i.e. non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders, and multi-racial students) had significantly lower odds than their white peers of believing their family could afford to pay for college. Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree Estimates are weighted by W1PARENT. p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Logistic Regression Results: First-Generation Students’ Perception of College Affordability The following had a significant effect on first-generation students’ perceptions of affordability: percentage of hours counseling staff spent on college counseling school type student’s Spring 2009 standardized math score parents’ having at least Bachelor’s degree aspirations for their child parents’ highest degree attained First-generation students whose counselors spent less than 20% of their time on college counseling had significantly lower odds than students whose counselors devoted more than 20% of their time to counseling to believe their family could afford college. First-generation students who attended a private high school had 38 percent greater odds of believing that college was affordable for their family than their peers attending a public school. In addition, as math performance increased, so did students’ odds of believing college was affordable. Also, students with parents who expected their first-generation children to earn at least a Bachelor’s degree had 85 percent greater odds of disagreeing that their family could not afford college than students whose parents expected them to earn a high school degree or less. Having parents who expected their child to earn an associate’s degree or who were unsure about their educational attainment netted no significant positive effect over having parents who expected their child to earn a high school diploma or less. Even among these first-generation college students, parents’ education was a major factor in their opinion of college affordability. Children of parents who held an associate’s degree rather than a high school diploma or less had 42 percent greater odds of believing college was affordable for their family. Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree Estimates are weighted by W1PARENT. p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Students’ Plans to Enroll in a Bachelor’s Degree Program

Logistic Regression Results: Students’ Plans to Enroll in a Bachelor’s Degree Program The following had a significant effect on students’ plans to enroll in a Bachelor’s degree program: counselor caseload student spoke with school counselor about college family member spoke with school counselor about college school type student’s Spring 2009 standardized math score sex parents’ having at least Bachelor’s degree aspirations for their child parents’ highest degree attained When accounting for different school, student and parent characteristics, three counselor characteristics emerged as significant predictors: caseload, students’ speaking to counselors about going to college and parents talking to school counselors about admission requirements. School type, student’s math score and sex also were significant predictors. Likewise, both parents’ characteristics were significant; educational expectations and highest degree attained had a significant impact on children’s plans to enroll in a bachelor’s degree immediately following high school. Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree Estimates are weighted by W1PARENT. p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Logistic Regression Results: First-Generation Students’ Plans Immediately After High School Graduation The following had a significant effect on first-generation students’ plans to enroll in a Bachelor’s degree program: student spoke with school counselor about college family member spoke with school counselor about college school type student’s Spring 2009 standardized math score sex parental expectations In terms of counselor-related characteristics, students’ speaking to a counselor about going to college and parents’ talking with a counselor or teacher about admission requirements both had a positive effect. Specifically, the odds of a student planning to enroll in a bachelor’s degree program in the year after high school increased by 37 percent for students who had spoken to their counselor about going to college. For students whose parents spoke with counselors about admission requirements, the odds of planning to enroll in the first year after high school increased by 42 percent. Moving on to school and student characteristics, students at private high schools had 33 percent greater odds of planning to enter a bachelor’s degree program and being female and having a higher math score continued to be positively related to bachelor’s degree plans. Certain parent variables also remained important. While having parents with an associate’s degree rather than a high school degree did not matter, parents’ educational expectations for their child did. Compared to students whose parents expected them to attain a high school diploma or less, students with parents who expected them to attain an associate’s degree or who did not know how far they would go in school had 54 percent and 57 percent greater odds, respectively, of planning to enroll in a bachelor’s degree program. This increase in odds was even larger for students whose parents expected them to attain at least a bachelor’s degree. The odds that these students planned to begin a bachelor’s program immediately after high school were more than 2.5 times greater than for those students whose parents expected them to attain a high school diploma or less. Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree Estimates are weighted by W1PARENT. p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Students’ SAT/ACT Test-Taking Plans

Logistic Regression Results: Students’ SAT/ACT Test-Taking Plans The following had a significant effect on students’ intentions to take the SAT or ACT : student speaking with school counselor about college student’s Spring 2009 standardized math score Once all variables were included in the logistic regression model for all students, only two significant characteristics remained: whether a student had spoken to their school counselor about going to college and a student’s math test score. Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree Estimates are weighted by W1PARENT. p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Logistic Regression Results: First-Generation Students’ SAT/ACT Test-Taking Plans The following had a significant effect on first-generation students’ intentions to take the SAT or ACT: student speaking with counselor about college school’s four-year college-going rate student’s Spring 2009 standardized math score A student talking to a counselor about going to college continued to have a significant effect, more than doubling the odds that a student planned to take the SAT or ACT. Higher rates of four-year college-going were associated with slightly increased odds that students planned to take the SAT or ACT, suggesting that a college-going environment can be helpful. For every 10 percentage-point increase in the four-year college-going rate, the odds that students with bachelor’s degree intentions planned to take the SAT or ACT increased eight percent. Finally, student’s math score continued to be a significant positive predictor of students’ going to a four-year college. Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree. Estimates are weighted by W1PARENT. p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001 Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.

Summary of Significant Predictors of First-Generation College Student’s College Attitudes and Plans Notes: First-generation college students include those who do not have a parent who has attained a bachelor's degree. Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, Base Year Survey Restricted Use File.