Evidence of Evolution by Natural Selection (Ch. 22) Dodo bird

Evidence supporting evolution Fossil record Anatomical record Molecular record Artificial selection

Fossil record Layers of sedimentary rock contain fossils new layers cover older ones, creating a record over time Show that a succession of organisms have populated Earth throughout a long period of time

Formation of sedimentary strata containing fossils 1 Rivers carry sediment to the ocean. Sedimentary rock layers containing fossils form on the ocean floor. 2 Over time, new strata are deposited, containing fossils from each time period. 3 As sea levels change and the seafloor is pushed upward, sedimentary rocks are exposed. Erosion reveals strata and fossils. Younger stratum with more recent fossils Older stratum with older fossils

A gallery of fossil types (a) Dinosaur bones being excavated from sandstone (g) Tusks of a 23,000-year-old mammoth, frozen whole in Siberian ice (e) Boy standing in a 150-million-year-old dinosaur track in Colorado (d) Casts of ammonites, about 375 million years old (f) Insects preserved whole in amber (b) Petrified tree in Arizona, about 190 million years old (c) Leaf fossil, about 40 million years old

Support (proof?) for a VERY old Earth.

A dragonfly fossil from Brazil, more than 100 million years old

The Geologic Record

Evolutionary change in horses 550 500 450 Equus 400 350 Body size (kg) 300 250 Merychippus increase in size, loss of toes, increase in size of molars 20-25 mya grasslands became widespread in Norh America molars = easer to eat grass hoof = faster locomotion on grassland 200 Mesohippus 150 Hyracotherium 100 50 Nannippus 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Millions of years ago

Evolution of birds Archaeopteryx lived about 150 mya links reptiles & birds The avian nature of the brain and inner ear of Archaeopteryx (Alonso et al. 2004) - Archaeopteryx, the earliest known flying bird from the Late Jurassic period, exhibits many shared primitive characters with more basal coelurosaurian dinosaurs (the clade including all theropods more bird-like than Allosaurus), such as teeth, a long bony tail and pinnate feathers. However, Archaeopteryx possessed asymmetrical flight feathers on its wings and tail, together with a wing feather arrangement shared with modern birds. This suggests some degree of powered flight capability but, until now, little was understood about the extent to which its brain and special senses were adapted for flight. Alonso et al. (2004) investigated this problem by computed tomography scanning and three-dimensional reconstruction of the braincase of the London specimen of Archaeopteryx. A reconstruction of the braincase and endocasts of the brain and inner ear suggest that Archaeopteryx closely resembled modern birds in the dominance of the sense of vision and in the possession of expanded auditory and spatial sensory perception in the ear. Alonso et al. (2004) concluded that Archaeopteryx had acquired the derived neurological and structural adaptations necessary for flight. An enlarged forebrain suggests that it had also developed enhanced somatosensory integration with these special senses demanded by a lifestyle involving flying ability. Smithsonian Museum, Washington, DC

Where are the transitional fossils? Whales, you ask... Land Mammal ? Where are the transitional fossils? There are innumerable intermediate & transitional forms Whales as land creatures returning to the water…. Where are the intermediate forms of whale ancestors? Cartoon making fun of this idea. The cartoons disappeared 10-12 years ago when this fossil was found. Ambilocetic natans = “Walking whale who likes to swim” 4-5 intermediate forms all found in last 2 decades Indus River valley in between India & Pakistan.

A transitional fossil linking past and present Oh. Here they Are!

2006 Fossil Discovery of Early Tetrapod Tiktaalik “missing link” from sea to land animals

Anatomical record Homologous structures similarities in characteristics resulting from common ancestry

Homologous structures Similar structure Similar development Different functions Evidence of close evolutionary relationship recent common ancestor

Homologous structures spines leaves succulent leaves tendrils needles colored leaves

Don’t be fooled by their looks! Analogous structures Separate evolution of structures similar functions similar external form different internal structure & development different origin no evolutionary relationship Don’t be fooled by their looks! Solving a similar problem with a similar solution

Does this mean they have a recent common ancestor? Convergent evolution Flight evolved in 3 separate animal groups analogous structures Does this mean they have a recent common ancestor?

Convergent evolution of analogous burrowing characteristics

& sleek bodies are analogous structures! Convergent evolution Fish: aquatic vertebrates Dolphins: aquatic mammals similar adaptations to life in the sea not closely related Those fins & tails & sleek bodies are analogous structures!

Parallel Evolution Convergent evolution in common niches marsupial Similar ecological roles in similar environments, Similar adaptations were selected but are not closely related marsupial mammals placental mammals

Parallel types across continents Niche Placental Mammals Australian Marsupials Burrower Mole Anteater Mouse Lemur Flying squirrel Ocelot Wolf Tasmanian “wolf” Tasmanian cat Sugar glider Spotted cuscus Numbat Marsupial mole Marsupial mouse Nocturnal insectivore Climber Glider Stalking predator Chasing

This is not LaMarck’s loss from “disuse”! Vestigial organs Structures that serve little or no function remnants of structures that were functional in ancestral species deleterious mutations accumulate in genes for non-critical structures without reducing fitness snakes & whales — remains of pelvis & leg bones of walking ancestors eyes on blind cave fish human tail bone This is not LaMarck’s loss from “disuse”!

Vestigial organs Hind leg bones on whale fossils Why would whales have pelvis & leg bones if they were always sea creatures?

Comparative embryology Similar embryological development in closely related species all vertebrate embryos have similar structures at different stages of development gill pouch in fish, frog, snake, birds, human, etc.

Anatomical similarities in vertebrate embryos Pharyngeal pouches Post-anal tail Chick embryo Human embryo

Why compare these genes? Molecular record Comparing DNA & protein structure universal genetic code! DNA & RNA compare common genes cytochrome C (respiration) hemoglobin (gas exchange) Why compare these genes? 25 50 75 100 125 Millions of years ago Horse/ donkey Sheep/ goat Goat/cow Llama/ cow Pig/ Rabbit/ rodent Horse/cow Human/rodent Dog/ Human/ Human/kangaroo Nucleotide substitutions Closely related species have sequences that are more similar than distantly related species A molecular record of evolutionary relationships

Comparison of a protein found in diverse vertebrates Species Human Rhesus monkey Mouse Chicken Frog Lamprey 14% 54% 69% 87% 95% 100% Percent of Amino Acids That Are Identical to the Amino Acids in a Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide

Comparative hemoglobin structure Human Macaque Dog Bird Frog Lamprey Why does comparing amino acid sequence measure evolutionary relationships? 8 32 45 67 125 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Number of amino acid differences between hemoglobin (146 aa) of vertebrate species and that of humans

“descendants” of wild mustard “descendants” of the wolf Artificial selection Artificial breeding can use variations in populations to create vastly different “breeds” & “varieties” “descendants” of wild mustard “descendants” of the wolf

Natural selection in action Insecticide & drug resistance insecticide doesn’t kill all individuals resistant survivors reproduce resistance is inherited insecticide becomes less & less effective The evolution of resistance to insecticides in hundreds of insect species is a classic example of natural selection in action. The results of application of new insecticide are typically encouraging, killing 99% of the insects. However, the effectiveness of the insecticide becomes less effective in subsequent applications. The few survivors from the early applications of the insecticide are those insects with genes that enable them to resist the chemical attack. Only these resistant individuals reproduce, passing on their resistance to their offspring. In each generation the % of insecticide-resistant individuals increases.

Evolution of drug resistance in HIV Patient No. 1 Patient No. 2 Patient No. 3 Percent of HIV resistant to 3TC Weeks

Evolution is not goal-oriented An evolutionary trend does not mean that evolution is goal-oriented. Surviving species do not represent the peak of perfection. There is compromise & random chance involved as well Remember that for humans as well! Evolution is not the survival of the fittest. Rather it is the survival of the just good enough.

I might be dead, but Perhaps you children would appreciate a bit of what you call the “rap” music?!?

Don’t Be Unintelligent... Ask Questions!!

Evidence of Evolution by Natural Selection Testable Hypotheses (Ch. 22- 24)

Peppered Moths Dark vs. light variants Year % dark % light 1848 5 95 1848 5 95 1895 98 2 1995 19 81

Peppered moth What was the selection factor? early 1800s = pre-industrial England low pollution lichen growing on trees = light colored bark late 1800s = industrial England factories = soot coated trees killed lichen = dark colored bark mid 1900s = pollution controls clean air laws return of lichen = light colored bark industrial melanism

Genome sequencing What can whole genome sequence data tell us about evolution of humans?

Primate Common Ancestry? Chromosome Number in the Great Apes (Hominidae) orangutan (Pogo) 48 gorilla (Gorilla) 48 chimpanzee (Pan) 48 human (Homo) 46 Could we have just lost a pair of chromosomes? Hypothesis: Change in chromosome number? If these organisms share a common ancestor, then is there evidence in the genome for this change in chromosome number

Chromosomal fusion Testable prediction: If common ancestor had 48 chromosomes (24 pairs), then humans carry a fused chromosome (23 pairs). Ancestral Chromosomes Fusion Homo sapiens Chromosome Number in the Great Apes (Hominidae) orangutan (Pogo) 48 gorilla (Gorilla) 48 chimpanzee (Pan) 48 human (Homo) 46 Inactivated centromere Telomere sequences Testable! This is what makes evolution science & not belief! Centromere Telomere

Test of the Human Genome Hillier et al (2005) “Generation and Annotation of the DNA sequences of human chromosomes 2 and 4,” Nature 434: 724 – 731. Ancestral Chromosomes “Chromosome 2 is unique to the human lineage of evolution, having emerged as a result of head-to-head fusion of two chromosomes that remained separate in other primates. The precise fusion site has been located in 2q13–2q14.1, where our analysis confirmed the presence of multiple subtelomeric duplications to chromosomes 1, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 19, 21 and 22. During the formation of human chromosome 2, one of the two centromeres became inactivated (2q21, which corresponds to the centromere from chimp chromosome 13) and the centromeric structure quickly deterioriated.” Fusion Homo sapiens Inactivated centromere Telomere sequences Well I’ll be a monkey’s …or an ape’s… uncle! Chr 2 Human Chromosome #2 shows the exact point at which this fusion took place

Any Questions?? 2007-2008

Review Questions

A complete fossil record Exists because of the great preservation in ocean sediment Exists because of the solidification of minerals around organisms Is available because of the small location in which all organisms used to live Exists because organisms that die become embedded in the soil to form rocks Does not exist.

The similarity of insect wings and bird wings is an example of Behavioral adaptations Geographic isolation Adaptive radiation Convergent evolution Divergent evolution

3. The human appendix is an example of A balanced polymorphism Divergent evolution Convergent evolution A vestigial structure A homologous structure

4. One piece of evidence that supports evolution from molecular biology is: Carbohydrate structure Amino acid sequences Lipid composition Nucleotide structure Cellulose chains