Electronic Media: Then, Now, and Later Norman J. Medoff and Barbara K. Kaye Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

From Marconi to Mobile Listening Chapter 2 From Marconi to Mobile Listening Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: Early Inventors and Inventions Electrical telegraphy Samuel Morse—dots and dashes—Morse code Advantages and disadvantages Electrical telephony Alexander Graham Bell—voice - telephone Point-to-point electrical communication Despite advantages, there was strong interest in creating a system of wireless communication Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media3/e Chapter 2

Then: Wireless Transmission James Clerk Maxwell Theorized radio waves Heinrich Hertz Demonstrated radio waves Oliver Lodge improved tuning of waves Guglielmo Marconi Practical demonstration of radio waves Reginald Fessenden Transmitted voice and music Lee de Forest Amplified weak radio signals Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: Basis for Broadcast Regulation U.S. Congress regulates U.S. broadcasting Airwaves belong to the people Scarce resource A tragic lesson Wireless Ship Act of 1910 Sinking of Titanic Radio Act of 1912 Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: Radio Becomes a Mass Medium (1 of 3) Broadcasting KDKA considered first commercial broadcast station David Sarnoff saw many uses for radio beyond point to point (Radio Music Box memo) World War I Stations operating during war needed government- trained operators and technicians U.S. government took control of radio stations and of the patents related to radio technology Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: Radio Becomes a Mass Medium (2 of 3) The Radio Corporation of America Created after WWI by companies that had contributed patents to the war effort RCA functions (manufacture, sales, etc.) divided among the participating companies. The 1920s After WWI, broadcasting resumed and grew quickly Doc Herrold, Frank Conrad, KDKA Westinghouse marketed radio sets, promoted programs Department stores and hotels were early broadcasters Four-letter call sign rule adopted in 1923 Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: Radio Becomes a Mass Medium (3 of 3) The Growth of Radio Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (1 of 4) How to generate revenue? WEAF: toll broadcasting; common carrier Chain broadcasting One station sends signal to another station via telephone lines; content broadcast simultaneously Network; station interconnection Copyright Act of 1907 Protected the intellectual product of artists, writers, composers ASCAP established 1914 to collect royalties Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (2 of 4) The network system Created to share content National Broadcasting Company (NBC, 1926) United Independent Broadcasters (UIB, 1927) Radio Act of 1927 Radio Act of 1912 inadequate for commercial radio 1927 Act created Federal Radio Commission Issued licenses, redesigned use of spectrum, provided channel allocations, regulated stations and networks Stations must operate in “public interest, convenience, and necessity” Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (3 of 4) The Communications Act of 1934 Created Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Regulated all radio and related services until legislation’s 1996 rewrite Tackled substandard radio programming Equal opportunity for political candidates’ use of airwaves A new network Mutual Broadcasting System (MBS) A cooperative of stations that shared programming among members Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: The Rise of Commercial Radio (4 of 4) Press/Radio War Radio newscasts began in 1920s Newspapers feared competition and tried to limit radio news Encouraged wire services not to serve radio stations Wouldn’t print radio program schedules for free The Biltmore Agreement (1933) Negotiated restrictions on radio news; didn’t last long Radio industry developed news operations Edward R. Murrow (Hear It Now; See It Now) Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: World War II (1 of 2) U.S. government support for war effort Shut down many transmitters; stopped building new radio stations; manufacturing turned from making consumer electronics to military equipment Radio remained popular; radio advertising increased The Blue Book Public Service Responsibility for Broadcast Licensees FCC’s attempt to clarify program standards re: the “public interest, convenience, and necessity” Nonsponsored programs, local live shows, public- issue programs, advertising Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Then: World War II (2 of 2) AM radio evolves Amplitude modulation TV lessened radio’s popularity Radio shifted away from networked content DJs, formats Low-power AM stations created in 1993 FM radio captures the audience Frequency modulation (Armstrong) Superior sound quality Slowly overtook AM radio Focus on music; talk mostly on AM Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Now: Satellite Radio Covers vast terrain Satellites and repeaters Overcomes shortcoming of terrestrial radio XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio Subscription service Stationary (home) and mobile (auto) receivers Merged in 2008 Has not led to demise of over-the-air broadcasting, as predicted Does not offer local channels Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Now: Radio Goes Digital Digital radio Goal: Switch without making receivers obsolete IBOC: In-band, on-channel HD Radio Allows multiple signals to be sent on channel allocation Relatively slow adoption Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Now: Internet Radio Began in late 1990s when streaming technology became available Licensed broadcasters supplement their over-the- air signal How will they respond to inroads by netcasters? Netcasters allow listeners to generate individual playlists and “stations” Pandora, Spotify Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Now: New Radio Technology and Copyright Issues In late 1990s, online file sharing became possible Peer-to-peer sites (Napster) shared music for free Music industry claimed lost revenue U.S. copyright law protects creators’ rights Copyright protection for specific length of time Unless in public domain or fair use ASCAP and BMI created to collect usage fees Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) Performance Rights Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Later: Internet Radio Can online radio compete with broadcast? Content: fewer restrictions than broadcast Portability: wireless Internet and mobile devices Broadcast radio facing same challenges as in 1950s Internet radio may now erode radio’s audience, and broadcast radio must again reinvent itself Provide content listeners cannot get elsewhere? Return to localism? Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Later: Other Technological Considerations Smartphones can receive broadcast signals, but feature is not usually activated Smartphone apps may help broadcasters reach mobile audiences Competing with Pandora would be paradigm shift From linear to random-access model; from passive to active audience In-car terrestrial radio listening remains strong Radio will likely continue to decline Unless gets boost from mobile delivery Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Later: The Role of Government FCC interested in preserving localism Satellite radio is national… …For now Low-power FM stations (LPFM) Nonprofit organizations 100 watts allows hyperlocalism Copyright law Changes in royalties sought by recording industry would increase expenses to broadcasters Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2

Later: Financial Outlook Online services continues to gain subscriber and advertising revenue Satellite radio continues to seek attractive content Radio stations continue to strive to deliver desired target audiences Medoff & Kaye Electronic Media 3/e Chapter 2