AICE Psychology Introduction

Unit I: Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychologists are interested in how we process information. They look into how we input information, how we process that information, and, finally, how we retrieve that information. Some cognitive psychologists believe the brain works like a computer, following the procedure of input, process, storage, and output. Areas of interest for cognitive psychologists include; memory and forgetting, perception, language, and attention.

Unit I: Cognitive Psychology The main research method used in cognitive psychology is the laboratory experiment Strengths: Findings are based on research, conducted in a laboratory. All variables are controlled, which means that findings are more likely to be reliable. EX: FSU INEB TEST Weaknesses: Though findings are discovered through the controlled, laboratory setting, cognitive psychologists are still investigating processed information, that can not be directly observed. EX: CAT STUDY

How Psychologists Research There are many different ways in which psychologists can collect information for their study; these are called research methods. It is up to the psychologist to choose the method they believe is most appropriate for their type of study.

Research Methods The research methods that are most commonly used (and required knowledge for the course) include: Laboratory Experiments Field Experiments Questionnaires Interviews Case Studies Observations

Laboratory Experiments Laboratory experiments work most effectively when the psychologist creates a controlled environment, (when no other variables are present, except for the single variable being tested, or modified) Vocab: In black Independent Variable Dependent Variable Control Group (function?) https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=s-fVRJyEvS0 Watch me!  https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=nqj0rJEf3Ew

Laboratory Experiments Strengths: High levels of control, which means the study may be easily re- tested for reliability. Psychologists are also very confident in results (that IV is effecting DV) because of this environmental control. EX: MILGRAM OBEDIENCE STUDY Weaknesses: Laboratory experiments take place in an artificial setting, and life does not take place in a vacuum. That makes laboratory experiments low in ecological validity. Ecological Validity: refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings

Field Experiments Field experiments take place in a participants own natural environment rather than an artificial laboratory. The researcher still tries to manipulate or change an IV while measuring the DV in attempt to see how the IV effects the DV.

Field Experiments In field experiments, there is an attempt to control outside variables. These are called situational variables. Strengths: Because of their real-world setting, field studies have a very high ecological validity. Because the participants do not know they are they are taking part in a study, their behavior is very likely to be natural, and valid. EX. CAFFEINE STUDY Weaknesses: Situational Variables can be difficult to control, and thus may cloud results (you would not know if your result is a valid one, or if something else is effecting/tainting your result, such as an outside variable.) Situational Variable: Factors in the environment that can unintentionally affect the results of a study. Such variables include noise, temperature, odors, and lighting. 

Questionnaires Asking participants a series of questions in the written form. Types of questionnaires: Likert Scale: Rating Scale:

Questionnaires Open-ended: “Can you tell me some more about a happy childhood memory?” Closed : Yes or no answer, choices are presented to you.

Questionnaires Strengths: Participants may be more inclined to reveal truthful answers on a questionnaire as it does not require talking face to face with someone. A large sample may be evaluated in a short time, which should increase the diversity of the people represented, and increase the ability to generalize the findings later on. Weaknesses: Participants may give socially desirable answers in order to look good, rather than giving truthful answers. This may lower the validity of the findings. A questionnaire with many closed ended questions may force participants to choose an answer that does not reflect their true opinion, due to a lack of open ended questions, or options.

Interviews Similar to questionnaires, but are in the spoken, not written, form. Interviewers ask a series of questions, and may record sessions to be transcribed later, to review exactly what an individual said. There are three main types of interviews: Structured: Set order of questions, used for each participant. EX: DMV/JOB INTERVIEW

Interviews Semi-structured: Certain questions must be asked, however, the interviewer may ask them in a different order, and may ask questions to help with clarification, or understand a participants response more fully. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDVaiwzU8yc

Interviews Unstructured: When an interviewer has a theme or topic to be discussed, but is guided by the responses given by the participant as the interview progresses. EX: CRIMINAL PSYCH INTERVIEW/POLICE INTERVIEW https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVG5AwZph-s The real guy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SbH781mVa4E

Interviews Strengths: The more open- ended questions an interview contains, the more information a psychologist may obtain, such as why a person behaves a certain way, or holds a certain opinion. Weaknesses: Participants may deceive the interviewer on the basis of social desirability, or stigmatization. Being face –to –face with the interview increases the likelihood of deception, as the participant does not want to be judged negatively.

Case Studies Case studies are NOT true research methods, because they use other methods to collect data. A case study examines an individual or unit of people (family) in depth, usually for an extended period of time. There may be something unusual about the case, such as trauma. The psychologist will use questionnaires, interviews, and observations to collect data. EX: HM CASE STUDY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0Od5DrdPA4

Case Studies Strengths: Studying one specific individual allows the psychologist to collect data rich in depth and detail. This makes the findings more valid. Because participants are usually studied as part of their everyday life, this lends to the study having high ecological validity. Weaknesses: Case studies are unique to individuals with significant differences from the general population, so the results of the study cannot be generalized. The psychologist must be careful not to form an attachment with the participant, as this could reduce the psychologists ability to be objective in analyzing the studies data. This could reduce the validity of the findings.

Observations Watching or observing people or animals, and their behaviors. There are many types of observation, but all types have a few elements in common. Before observing a subject, the psychologist must create a behavioral checklist. This is called an ethogram if the psychologist is observing non- humans. The psychologist includes a picture and description of the behavior they are looking to observe for clarity. This makes sure multiple observers, helping the psychologist look for this behavior, know exactly what to look for, and identify the same thing.

Observations Behavioral Checklist: A list clearly describing and naming the behavior the psychologist expects to see. Ethogram: The same format as a behavioral checklist, intended for non-human subjects. Is the chart on the right a behavioral checklist or Ethogram? Look carefully!

Observations Three main types of observation are the most common and effective. These are: Naturalistic: Observation that takes place in a person or animals natural environment EX: JANE GOODALL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eeASUdvLLnY

Observations Controlled: Observations that take place in a controlled setting, such as a two way mirror in interviewing EX: JAMES BOND PSYCH EVAL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pgi487sRy6c

Observations Participant: Psychologist is part of the group they will observe. This can be overt (the group knows the psychologist is there), or covert (the group does not know the psychologist is observing them.) EX: 21 Jump Street Is this a overt, or covert example? Why or why not?

Observations Strengths: Using observation when a participant is unknowingly observed increases the likelihood a participant will act naturally. This also increases ecological validity. Because observation data is quantified (put in number form), data can be analyzed statistically with minimal bias. Weaknesses: If a participant realizes they are being observed, they may change their behavior to be more socially desirable. This reduces the validity of the findings. Naturalistic studies are difficult to replicate, as they take place in organic, uncontrolled environments, and many variables cannot be controlled. This reduces the reliability of the study.