Hedging, Boosting and Positioning 1a. The result is somewhat surprising. 1b. The result is very surprising. 2a. The research seems to support this view. 2b. The research is supportive of this view. 3a. A number of physical housing features lead to unintentional injuries. 3b. A number of physical housing features may lead to unintentional injuries. 3c. A number of physical housing features may certainly lead to unintended injuries.

Modal verbs Hedging (Softening Claims) Boosting (Strengthening Claims) May (not), might (not), can, could, should = possibility, prediction Should = hedged prediction Would Will = strong prediction Must = high certainty or a very strong obligation Can = ability: definitely able to do something Cannot = will certainly not

May 1a. Iterations in temperature may mean greater variability in annual climatic events. 1b. Iterations in temperature mean / will mean greater variability in annual climatic events. 1c. Iterations in temperature should mean greater variability in annual climatic events.

Should 2. From a humanitarian standpoint, the United States government should invest resources in controlling the global spread of malaria. (This is a hedged recommendation – implications or concluding section)

Can Can both hedges and boosts – adverbs clarify the meaning. 3. Credible guidelines can certainly be established. (boosting) 4. These findings can possibly be explained by earlier research. (hedging) The negatives of some modals do not have the same strength as the affirmatives. Cannot is much stronger than can; it means something is certainly impossible or must not be allowed. Have to is similar to must in strength but do not have to means something isn’t necessary.

Would Would is used for a prediction or hypothesis about events or states that might happen in the future but are not currently real or possible. Would is considered a hedging device because it has an unreal meaning that distances the writer from the claim. 5. To tackle this problem would require at least three things. (no one is tackling the problem, but if someone did it would require three things) Would is used in unreal condition clauses but in academic writing often the if clause is often implicit. 6. Most people would agree that the ideal education system would properly educate everyone. (if they were asked is implicit)

Adverbs The strength of any verb can be hedged or boosted with an adverb. Most hedging or boosting adverbs appear in the middle of the clause they modify. The exact position depends on the verb: Before the main verb when it is also the finite verb: The results apparently show… Between the finite and the main verb: This has been somewhat validated by… After be as a main verb: This is presumably why….

Adverbs Actually boosts a claim – it introduces a possibility that the reader might not expect. 7. The expectation of reward can actually undermine intrinsic motivation and creativity of performance. Indeed boosts a hedged statement by showing that an idea is true even though it had been doubted. 8. Part of the answer may indeed lie in our genes. What is the effect of the combination of a hedging modal and a boosting adverb? 9. Because of past and future anthropogenic emissions of CO2, the climate may depart significantly from its natural course over the next 50,000 years

Evaluative language 10. To generate income, communities should think outside the big box of large corporations and concentrate on small, locally owned businesses and startups. Communities vs towns, cities, municipalities Big box stores vs major retailers, discount superstores Small vs big box Startups vs inexperienced store owners, struggling new companies Effective word choice helps writers align readers with their ideas.

Reporting verbs Evaluative (believe) Neutral (know) Prove, demonstrate, confirm, establish (know and give reasons) Admit, recognise, acknowledge (say something perhaps you didn’t want to) Claim (say something that’s not obvious or perhaps not true) Deny (refuse to accept) Argue, contend, insist (say something not obvious, but give reasons) Assume, assert, maintain (make public without giving reasons) Suspect, suggest, speculate (believe, but not fully confidently) Doubt (think something is not true) Recommend (want others to believe) Reveal, show, point out, explain, say, write, observe, indicate, state, report, note (know + make public) Realize, notice, find, conclude, determine (come to know) Discover, reveal (make known something that isn’t obvious) Imply (draw a conclusion that isn’t explicitly made) Propose, hypothesize, estimate (true based on known conditions)

Evaluative language Adjectives: Boosting: confident, sure, certain, clear, positive, effective, true, firm, constant, accurate, solid, reliable, robust, definite, trustworthy, dependable, unquestionable, valid Hedging: uncertain, ambiguous, unclear, vague, tentative, doubtful, hesitant, exploratory, cautious, speculative, provisional, preliminary, unconfirmed, so-called

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