Biological rhythms & sleep – Methodology A03 Methodological issues: sample- Many of the studies use very few participants (case studies with 1 person e.g. Siffre) and, for this reason, findings may not easily be generalised to a wider population. There may also be specific factors about these individuals (e.g. age, gender & personality) that also bring into question such results e.g. working patterns e.g. night shift that effects biological rhythms. Methodological issues: lack ecological validity- The artificial & uncomfortable surroundings of the sleep lab suggest that such sleep findings lack ecological validity. Sleep in the comfort of your own bed may be qualitatively and or quantitatively different in nature. Methodological issues: demand characteristics – Participants are always aware that they are taking part in a study and this may bias the results. It could motivate the participants or stress them out either way the result will be affected. Objective measures: use of eeg’s– provide scientific and objective measurements of sleep. The findings from these studies therefore provide psychologists with data that is valid and reliable. They are able to use this information in practical ways fro example to note life span changes in sleep or to help people with sleep disorders like insomnia. Operationalisation of sleep: one difficulty with sleep research is to agree on when sleep occurs. Sleep onset is gradual and entails a predictable sequence of events this makes it harder to measure. Also using a single measurement of sleep like the EEG measures restrict the definition of sleep. Main research methods used : lab studies, self report measures, & case studies. What are the ads & disads of these?

Biological rhythms & sleep Determinism VS Free will – Much of the research within this section claims that our behaviour is determined by factors outside of our control (for example our biological rhythms Infradian rhythm). This assumes that we are not responsible fro our behaviour and this takes away the notion of free will. Humans are therefore deemed as passive and not in control of their behaviour. The classic example of this is the work conducted on PMS & SAD. The use of animals in research – Much of the research in this area has relied heavily of the use of animals in research. This is problematic because: -The methods used on animals are in whole unethical. Many animals studies continue until the animal dies. This assumes that human life is valued more than an animals life. -Results cannot be generalised to humans – there is an issue of extrapolation. We do know that the systems differ from one animal to the next and that humans are cognitively superior to animals. It is therefore important check animal findings against research with humans Links to approaches: the biological approach – The studies used in this section propose that human behaviour can be explained in terms of structures & hormonal activity. However, human behaviour is more complex than this because people can override biologically determined behaviours by making choices about they do there is very little consideration for psychology and the social influences that affect individuals such as relationships, background, stresses of work. Individual differences

Aggression synopsis– Methodology A03 Methodological issues: sample- Many of the studies use very few participants or children as in the case of the bobo doll studies and, for this reason, findings may not easily be generalised to a wider population. There may also be specific factors about these individuals (e.g. age, gender & personality) that also bring into question such results. Methodological issues: lack ecological validity- Many of the studies were conducted in labs. Lab studies are good as they allow the researcher to have high levels of control which means we can infer cause & effect relationships, however lab studies lack ecological validity. Methodological issues: demand characteristics – Participants are always aware that they are taking part in a study and this may bias the results. It could motivate the participants or stress them out either way the result will be affected. Operationalisation of aggression – aggression is a difficult term to define as it is subjective. Aggression differs from person to person and place to place and for this reason it’s a difficult concept to measure and test. Also can aggression be tested in a lab? Aggression tends to be spontaneous in the real world, how can aggression be manufactured in a lab and then tested? Surely this will result in demand characteristics which will lead to invalid results. Main research methods used : lab studies, self report measures. What are the ads & disads of these?

Aggression synoptic summary Determinism VS Free will – Much of the research within this section claims that our behaviour is determined by factors outside of our control (for example SLT aggression is caused by modelling and observational behaviour). This assumes that we are not responsible for our behaviour and this takes away the notion of free will. Humans are therefore deemed as passive and not in control of their behaviour. This has huge implications for aggression because an individual who is aggression may blame their aggressive behaviour on their environment and therefore not on themselves. Reductionism - viewing aggressive behaviour in terms of observation of aggressive (SLT), brain / neural / genetic factors reduces the complexities of aggression to simplified explanations this therefore fails to consider wider holistic factors such as what was the cause of the aggression in the first place, childhood and cultural influences, we therefore have an incomplete explanation. Links to approaches: Theme B the biological approach – The studies used in this section propose that human behaviour can be explained in terms of structures & hormonal activity. However, human behaviour is more complex than this because people can override biologically determined behaviours by making choices about they do there is very little consideration for psychology and the social influences that affect individuals such as relationships, background, stresses of work. Theme A & C – social approach – the theories & research in these themes look at behaviour in terms of its social context and attempted to look at the environmental influences on our behaviour. Consider institutional aggression, & groups displays of aggression. However, the social approach fails to consider the importance of biology. Maybe we to adopt a diathesis stress aprroach. Gender bias – the research and explanations are based on male experiences and are then generalised to females. They fail to consider female aggression and violence which may not have the same cause as males, this means that more research needs to be done on women and aggression.

Relationships synoptic summary Methodology PSYA3 Methodological issues – the use of lab experiments/ sample bias Reductionism Determinism The research / theory focuses only on heterosexual romantic relationships Links to the evolutionary approach Cultural bias Ethical issues

Relationships synoptic summary Methodology PSYA3 Methodological issues: It is important to realise that relationships are forever changing and therefore do not stand still. This makes relationships a difficult area to study in the lab. Mush of the research has focused on self report methods which can be criticised for social desirability bias. Methodological issue: Much of the research also requires participants to look at back a their present or previous relationships and this is prone to problems of retrospective research.

Relationships synoptic summary Links to approaches – the evolutionary approach: Much of the explanations about human relationships whether it be formation or human reproductive behaviour has clear links to the evolutionary approach. The evolutionary approach attempts to explain human relationships by claiming that relationships nave been adapted by humans to help them successfully reproduce and pass on their genes through natural selection. The need to reproduce also provides a selective pressure so any behaviour which increases an individuals chances of passing on their genes will be favoured. Of course the this approach is post hoc.

Synopsis – what I need to consider REDUCTIONISM DETERMINISM VS FREE WILL GENDER BIAS CULTURE BIAS ETHICAL ISSUES: - THE ISSUES OF CONSENT, DECEPTION & PSYCHOLOGICAL HARM. - THE IMPACT OF SSR THE USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH THE NATURE NURTURE DEBATE ASSESSMENT OF: - VALIDITY - RELIABILITY - SCIENTIFIC CREDIBILITY KNOW HOW TO MAKE, RECORD & COMMUNICATE RELIABLE & VALID OBSERVATIONS & MEASUREMENTS; ANALYSE, INTREPRET, EXPLIAN & EVALUATE METHODOLOGY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES