What are Rhetorical Strategies?

What is rhetoric? And why bother studying it? “the art of effective expression (speaking & writing) and the persuasive use of language” We study rhetoric because: –it helps us to better appreciate appeals to our ethos, pathos, & logos (more on this to come) –it helps us to become more effective persuasive speakers and writers

Examples? What are some of the techniques by which people use language persuasively? Jot these down in your notes

Maybe you named some of these examples: Formal diction leads readers/listeners to believe something is ethically or legally important Emotional diction (sometimes called “sensationalism”) leads readers/listeners to recognize that ideas expressed are important to the writer/speaker Allusion can associate a new idea to a traditionally respected source

Here is a real-life example of rhetoric in action… If you were trying to persuade a student to get to class on time, you might say, “it is SHS policy that students serve detention after three tardies”. What makes this statement effective?

The statement sounds formal and authoritative!

Ethos, Pathos, Logos Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that there are three basic ways to persuade an audience that you are right.

Ethos (Ethical Appeal) Persuasive appeal of one’s character. Tells us that the author is reliable and competent Example: “Greg is a man who keeps his word…he has a deep commitment to public service and our values. He is someone you can trust.” – Mary Lucy Phalen (Abbott’s MIL) Greg Abbott, Republican Candidate for TX Governor

Pathos (Emotional Appeal) Appeal to emotion (of course, meant to evoke emotional response) Example: “Imagine for a moment a tragic collision on the Parks Highway. A family is killed and many others are injured. The cause is determined to be potholes. We must use more state funds to pay for road improvements.”

Logos (Logical Appeal) Appeal to reason (evokes a rational response) Example: “Texas’ roads are in a state of disrepair. Without quality roads, our transportation system will falter and hinder our economy. Hence, we must use more state funds to pay for road repairs.”

Rhetorical Strategies The strategies that follow are just some of the ways to make your writing/speaking more persuasive…

Parallel Structure Parallel Structure-repetition of grammatically similar words, phrases, clauses, or sentences to emphasize a point or stir the emotions of a reader/listener. Used to create a sense of rhythm, balance, and order in writing or speech. –Chiasmus=“inverted parallelism” (i.e. eat to live, not live to eat)

Parallel Structure The coach told the players: “You will get some sleep tonight, you will not eat too much right before the game, and you will do some warm-up exercises before the game.”

Rhetorical Question Rhetorical Question-question not answered by writer b/c the answer is obvious or obviously desired. Used in persuasion to encourage the reader/listener to reflect on what the answer must be. “How much longer must our people endure this injustice?”

Repetition Repeating the same words or phrases over and over again to make your point. xk4https:// xk4

TYPES OF EVIDENCE You can use evidence in your writing to back up your claim, just like you do with textual evidence!

Allusion Short, informal reference to famous person, event, story. Relies on reader/listener to be familiar with the reference and hidden meaning. Used to stimulate ideas, associations, add extra information. If I want to persuade you to wash your hands, I may say “thou shalt wash thy hands”. I am trusting that you respect the Biblical commandments and, hence, my statement.

Analogy Comparison between two things that are alike in certain respects. Used in persuasion to demonstrate the logic of one idea by showing how it is similar to an accepted idea. –(“Pupils are more like oysters than sausages. The job of teaching is not to stuff them and then seal them up, but to help them reveal the riches within.”-Sydney Harris)

Anecdote A SHORT story or narration that can be used as evidence to back up your claim. Remember to keep it RELEVANT, though, and this is NOT a personal narrative, so try to avoid personal pronouns.

Expert Opinions The opinion of a recognized “Expert” in a subject area can be used as evidence. Commercials for products use them all the time:

Facts and Statistics FACTS are known statements that can be proved or verified. Statistics are a type of NUMERICAL fact, or facts that are simply stated in numbers. They include any data that can be proven or disproven—for example, 100% of my students passed the STAAR last year.

Examples An example is a specific instance that explain a point. For example, if you were arguing that we need better nutritional value in our cafeteria food at SHS, you might give an EXAMPLE of the unhealthy food choices that are currently available to students.

Other Rhetorical Techniques & Good Persuasive Stuff Counterarguments, Humor, considering your audience, and what NOT to do!

Counterarguments A COUNTERARGUMENT takes the other side of the issue and then refutes it. This can strengthen or weaken your essay depending on how effective you are at refuting the opposing argument. *Usually, you will want to pair this method with FACTS to back up your refutation.

Humor Humor can be used to make you like the writer/speaker and “win you over” –Hyperbole-exaggeration for emphasis/effect (“at night she needs a paint scraper to take off her makeup”) –Sarcasm (“Obama doesn’t have the experience of being Miss Wasilla!”) –Irony (verbal, situational, dramatic) (“it is ironic that the window store had all of its windows broken by vandals”) –Understatement (From Monty Python: Army officer loses a leg, “Stings a bit.”)

Audience When attempting to persuade, consider your audience. For example, you would not use caustic satire to persuade a potential employer to hire you. (“The food served here is great if you are a teenager with two dollars in your pocket.”)

WHAT NOT TO DO: Cliché, Bias, Fallacy, and Propoganda

A Cliché is an overused expression. You won’t sound very innovative if you use cliché in your writing. Example: “At the end of the day, time flies when you are having fun so we all need to give 110% because one bad apple can spoil the bunch and what goes around comes around.”

BIAS: BIAS is an inclination toward a particular judgment on a topic or issue. Usually presents only one way of looking at an issue. Words that have strong negative or positive connotations can indicate a writer’s bias.

Fallacy There are many different types of fallacies, but basically a fallacy is a faulty argument.

Hasty Generalizations Example: “My best friend said her English class was hard, and the one I’m in is hard, too. All English classes must be hard!” Two people’s experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a conclusion.

Either/Or Fallacy (also called “false dilemma”) Presenting only solution X and Y to a problem, when there may be more solutions than just X and Y. ?v=EbOpNs6spV8

Circular Reasoning (Also known as “Paradoxical thinking” This occurs when proposition is supported by the premises, which is supported by the proposition, creating a circle in reasoning where no useful information is being shared. For example: X true because of Y. Y is true because of X.

CVbku6nxhU Elaine’s Circular Reasoning on Seinfeld

Active Voice v. Passive Voice Active Voice- The boy hit the ball. The subject of this sentence actively hits the ball. Passive Voice- The ball was hit by the boy. The subject sits passively, doing nothing while some outside agent performs the action.

Here’s why it is better rhetoric to use active voice… Active voice sentences are shorter. –The fighter punched Ali and dodged the uppercut. (Active= 8 words) –Ali was punched by the fighter, and then an uppercut was dodged by him. (Passive= 14 words)

Active sentences are clear and to the point When you use passive voice, you have to use boring phrases like “by so-and- so” or leave this out and let your sentence become unclear. –The airplane was flown to Bermuda (by the pilot). –My car has been driven to Dallas. (By whom? A car thief? The teletubbies?)

To Identify the Evil Passive Voice Is there a form of the verb “to be” such as is/am/are/was/were/be/being/been? (Can’t create passive voice without this) Could you insert “by so-and-so” after the verb? (the dog was fed (by the owner) ID the subject and main verb. Is the subject “doing” the action? Or is it sitting passively?