Chp. 2 – Sociological Research

Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour through research: results in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and commonsense in understanding society “hows” and “whys” of human social interaction

Sociologists typically use two types of empirical studies: 1) descriptive – attempt to describe social reality or provide facts about some group, practice or event (i.e. %) 2) explanatory – attempt to explain relationships and to provide information on why certain events do or do not occur

Deductive approach – the researcher begins with a theory and uses research to test the theory Inductive approach – the researcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data

Sociological research process Quantitative – data can be measured numerically Qualitative – interpretive description (words) rather than statistics (#’s)

Research methods 1) Experiment – a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behaviours Divided into two groups: a) experimental group – contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable to study its effects on them b) control group – contains the subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable

Laboratory experiment – subjects are studied in a closed setting, such as an animal’s cage or a room in a university building Natural experiment – real-life occurrences such as floods Researchers might stage events in a natural setting by conducting a field experiment

Advantages of experiments Researchers control over environment and the ability to isolate the experimental variable Little time and $ - can replicate an experiment several times by using different groups of participants – strengthens validity

Experiment Limitations Artificial – participation in a lab – they know they are participating and may react to what they think the experiment is about: Reactivity – the tendency of participants to change their behaviour in response to the presence of the researchers or to the fact that they know they are being studied Frequently rely on volunteers or captive audiences such as students – may not be representative of a larger population and the findings cannot be generalized to other groups

2) Surveys Research most associated with sociology A number of respondents are asked identical questions through a systematic questionnaire or interview Usually select a representative sample (small group from a larger population) to answer questions about their attitudes, opinions or behaviours i.e. gallop poll – one of the most widely known lg. scale surveys i.e. gov’t agencies i.e. Stats Canada- census (all people in Canada)

Types of surveys a) Questionnaires – series of items to which subjects respond Strengths – simple, cheap, rapid data collection & analysis, anonymous Weakness – low response rate i.e. mailed – only 10% response b) Interviews – interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answer Advantage – more effective for complicated issues and face to face communication Disadvantage - cost and time

c) Telephone – very popular today Advantages – saves time and $, may be more honest than when they are facing an interviewer, higher response rate than those mailed Disadvantages – answering machines, caller id- some people are now less accessible to researchers

Surveys usually involves sampling Sample – the people who are selected from the population (those people about whom we want to be able to draw conclusions) to be studied Random sample – chosen by chance “The Gift of Blood” – pg. 50

Strength of Surveys – useful in describing the characteristics of a lg Strength of Surveys – useful in describing the characteristics of a lg. population without having to everyone Weaknesses – may not be honest, especially on emotional issues - may be unwilling to provide information on sensitive issues and may simply forget relevant information (Table 2.1 pg. 54 – reasons for error)

3) Secondary Analysis research Researchers use existing material and analyze data originally collected by others Strengths: data are readily available and often inexpensive bias may be reduced because researcher is not collecting data Weaknesses : data may be incomplete or inaccurate categories may not reflect variables of interest to researcher

4) Field Research The study of social life in its natural setting : observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play Good for QUALITATIVE data

Types of field research A) Observation i) complete observation – researcher observes a social process but does not take part in it (i.e. sitting in on a university lecture) ii) participant observation – collecting observations while being part of the activities of the group they are studying (generates more “inside” information than simply asking questions or observing from the outside) (pg. 56 – Red River Floods observation about altruism) (“Exposing the colour of racism article”)

B) Case Study – most participant observation takes this form an in-depth investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping often involves more than one method of research

C) Unstructured Interview – an extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee The interviewer has a general plan of inquiry but not a specific set of questions that must be asked

Strength of field research – provides opportunities for researchers to view from the inside what may not be obvious to an outside observer Weakness – cannot be generalized to a larger population

Ethical issues in sociological research now required by professional code of ethics to weigh societal benefits of research against the potential physical and emotional costs to participate Required to obtain written “informed consent” statements from the persons they study

The Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association’s basic standards: often involves intrusions into people’s lives, therefore: 1) participation must be voluntary 2) must not harm the subjects in any way 3) anonymity and confidentiality Sociologists must adhere to ethical considerations (this is difficult, often ambiguous, and disagreements among researchers) (Pg. 61 and 62 – Humphreys and Ogden cases)