The Balkans— The Chessboard of Europe Scribner’s Magazine June 1896 Long Term & Short Term Causes of the First World War

Question… To what extent and in what ways did nationalist tensions in the Balkans between 1870 and 1914 contribute to the outbreak of WW I?

Ottoman control of the Balkans at the beginning of the 19 th century

The “Sick Man of Europe” The Eastern Question… what would happen to the Balkans if and when the Ottoman Empire (OE) disappeared as the dominant political feature of Southeastern Europe Term is attributed to Nicholas I in discussions with the British in 1841

1774 Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji Russia had defeated the OE In the treaty, Russia gained access to the Black Sea Coast merchant ships could enter the Bosphorus & Dardanelles could trade in the OE claimed to receive the right to protect all Orthodox Christians in the OE claimed special rights in Moldavia & Wallachia

Treaty of Paris 1856 Ended the Crimean War All Russian warships barred from the Black Sea All nations’ merchant ships could use the Black Sea All of the Great Powers became protectors of Christians in the Balkans Russian goal… overturn the Treaty of Paris

4 th Russo-Turkish War Problems in the Balkans in 1876… crop failures unemployment nationalism 30,000 Bulgarians massacred by Turkish irregulars Russia and other Great Powers tried to create autonomous Christian regions within OE territory, but the OE rejected the proposals

4 th Russo-Turkish War War began with an anti Turkish uprising in Bosnia-Herzegovina Serbia & Montenegro had their own war against the OE in 1876 and defeated the OE Russia joined the war after gaining Austrian neutrality… on condition Russia did not try to create a large client state in the Balkans Russia’s goals were to free Slavic groups and put them under Russian protection (Pan-Slavism)

4 th Russo-Turkish War Bulgaria rebelled against the OE 1876 and Russia came to her aid to avenge the deaths of the massacred Bulgarians In spite of Gladstone’s pamphlet condemning the OE massacre in Bulgaria, Britain supported the OE to reduce Russian influence in the Balkans Germany was caught in the middle between Austria & Russia… League of the Three Emperors was in force at that time.

Treaty of San Stefano Russia defeated the OE Large Bulgaria created (with a warm water port!) as an autonomous principality within the OE Confirmed independence of Romania Independence of an enlarged Serbia & Montenegro

Treaty of San Stefano

Why Bulgaria believed it should be BIG

Congress of Berlin 1878 Britain supported OE—suspicious of Russia so would not work with them Germany caught in the middle between Russia & Austria Bismarck took role of mediator Austria had supported Russian war against OE on the understanding there would be no territorial changes in the Balkans Austria felt betrayed by Russia’s Treaty of San Stefano

Treaty of Berlin 1878 Romania, Serbia & Montenegro became completely independent countries Bulgaria was reduced, became autonomous principality within the OE & had to pay tribute Eastern Rumelia & Macedonia given back to OE Bosnia & Herzegovina given to Austria to “occupy & administer” but Bosnia still part of OE France received Tunisia to compensate for territory Russia gained

Russia received Bessarabia from Romania & small part of Armenia from OE Russia was required to stop its advances into Afghanistan Russia was allowed to build warships on the Black Sea No nation could sail warships through the Straits into or out of the Black Sea Later, Greece gained additional territory in the north (Thessaly) from OE in 1881

Cyprus Convention 1878 Between Great Britain & OE Was the “price” for British support of the OE at the Congress of Berlin Gave Cyprus to Great Britain for a naval base— made Greece mad “Cyprus is the key to Western Asia”--Disraeli

Balkan reaction to Treaty of Berlin 1878 Serbia lost chance to gain Bosnia… instead became a source of conflict with Austria Bulgaria was furious at the loss of territory due to end Treaty of San Stefano Serbia & Greece began pushing their own claims to Macedonia in response to Bulgaria’s claim to Macedonia in the Treaty of San Stefano

Macedonia— “Poland of the Balkans” Serbia & Greece upset at Bulgaria’s claim to Macedonia so began making their own claims on Macedonia in anticipation of the Great Powers redrawing the map of the Balkans in the future Greece wanted Macedonia Loyalties were local… family, religion, tribe… no national consciousness Macedonia was multi-religious… Muslim, Orthodox, Jewish majority in Salonika

Multi-ethnic… included both Serbs and Bulgarians Bulgarians & Serbs set up schools, religious organizations and guerrilla groups to protect their groups Other minorities were Greek, Romanian & Albanian An English relief worker, in 1904, described the lawless conditions that existed in Macedonia; OE authorities had little power Great Powers preferred that the OE keep control of Macedonia—they doubted that the Balkan states could divide Macedonia peacefully

Bulgaria— “Prussia of the Balkans” 1885 autonomous Bulgaria and Rumelia united The Great Powers, including Russia, were unhappy; Serbia was unhappy—worried about loss of power relative to Bulgaria Serbia declared war on Bulgaria Bulgaria’s army was successful against Serbia (had Krupp cannons) Austria-Hungary stepped in to protect Serbia No territorial changes to Bulgaria or Serbia Great Powers recognized the new Bulgaria Relations soured between Bulgaria & Serbia

Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) Formed 1893 by Macedonian-born professionals Ties to Bulgaria… educated in Bulgaria Goal—to be free of the OE Question—independent or part of Bulgaria? In spite of Ottoman reforms, leaders in Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria & Macedonia continued their conflict, expecting the Great Powers to partition Macedonia—each wanted as strong a claim as possible to as much territory as possible

In Macedonia By 1895… Bulgarian National Committee Greek Association of Hellenistic letters Serbian Society of Saint Sava All three organizations operated in Macedonia In addition, a Macedonian nationalist group had developed… “Macedonia for the Macedonians” Macedonia also had a large Turkish population and the OE considered Macedonia to be Ottoman

Balkans: 1899

Young Turk Uprising—1908 Goal was to strengthen, preserve & consolidate the OE Founded the Committee of Union & Progress (CUP) Wanted a homogeneous, Muslim society Also wanted to keep control over Macedonia; feared if the OE did not reform, it would lose control over Macedonia Wanted legal and governmental reforms

The Young Turks gained power by promising to stop the further loss of territory A few months later, the Bosnian Crisis broke out

Bosnian Crisis—1908 Multi-religious… Bosnian Muslims, Croatian Catholics, Serbian Orthodox Largest group was Serbian Orthodox 1903 coup put Peter I on the throne of Serbia Peter was expansionist—wanted Bosnia and territory between Serbia & Montenegro Peter also wanted to make Serbia attractive to other Serbs—wanted Serbia to become the “Piedmont of the Balkans”

Russian & Austrian Foreign Ministers discussed with each other how to change the Treaty of Berlin (1878) Castle where the two Foreign Ministers met Russia thought the agreement was: Austria would annex Bosnia-Herzegovina Bulgaria would become fully independent Serbia would gain territory Austria would not oppose Russian warships gaining use of the Straits

Serbia wanted at least part of Bosnia and wanted access to the Adriatic HOWEVER… Bulgaria declared independence and the next day Austria annexed Bosnia Predictably, Great Britain opposed any change to Russia’s use of the Straits In the end, Russia did not get use of the Straits Serbia was forced to accept Austria’s annexation of Bosnia Russia was unable to support Serbia

Italo-Turkish War 1911 Italy wanted Libya to balance French colonial gains Italy was successful and gained Libya as their colony Italy also gained the island of Rhodes and the Dodecanese Islands Balkan countries noticed how easy it was to beat the OE in a war

First Balkan War— Balkan League—Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece & Montenegro Lesson Balkan League learned from Italian war was that if the countries banded together, they could defeat the OE War was Balkan League v OE over control of Macedonia Justification for the war… began with Montenegro’s border dispute with OE

The Balkan League defeated the OE and gained Macedonia Ended by the Treaty of London 1913 This ended OE rule in the Balkans OE retained only a small part of land in Europe Macedonia give to the Balkan League, not to an individual country Problem… but what do to with Macedonia?

After the First Balkan War

Albania 1912 To stop Serbia from gaining a port on the Adriatic, Austria promoted the independence of Albania Serbia allowed Black Hand to operate

Competing Balkan Claims

Second Balkan War—1913 Problem—how to divide up Macedonia Russia wanted to mediate but did not want to offend either Serbia or Bulgaria Bulgaria was unhappy with the amount of land it received and began a war against Serbia & Greece This time Romania and the OE joined Serbia, Montenegro & Greece—all against Bulgaria Romania was unhappy because Bulgaria had promised some land in exchange for Romanian neutrality during the First Balkan War Bulgaria lost the war and lost most of the land she had gained in the First Balkan War Serbia became dominant Balkan power

Balkans after the Second Balkan War

Sources Notes compiled over years History of the Balkans—Eighteenth & Nineteenth Centuries by Barbara Jelavich, New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, annexation-of-bosnia-herzegovina/ annexation-of-bosnia-herzegovina/