Shias & Sunnis, Arabs and Persians, Kurds & Whey: Complications of Religion, Ethnicity, Culture and Oil in the Middle East Gary McKiddy, St. Charles Community College Karen Johnson-Budd, Nerinx Hall High School

Anticipatory Set Question What did Saddam Hussein and Little Miss Muffet have in common?

Answer One They both had Kurds in their way/whey Answer Two The downfall of each had a connection with a spider (Miss Muffet was frightened by one; Saddam was caught hiding in a “spider hole”)

The Dilemma The public tends to think of the “Islamic World” as a monolithic culture dominated by “Islam” Teachers have limited time to cover the complicated groups (religious and ethnic) in the Islamic World and their conflicting interests What is covered in textbooks tends to be “how the conflicts” in the Islamic World impact the West and it’s economy (especially the supply and price of oil)

Looking at Gulf War II from A Western View Point Video from The Daily Show

The nations of the modern Islamic World are recent creations with borders imposed by foreign powers. Most were created by European nations in the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty to facilitate the access to ports and natural resources by European powers Nations were created without regard to the religious or ethnic groups in a region The European states imposed monarchs who would support their interests

The Middle East After WW I Egypt had been an English “Protectorate” since The royal family was originally Albanian. Syria was ruled by a Saudi prince who would be deposed by the French and moved to rule Iraq. Transjordan was ruled by the brother of the king of Syria. Saudi Arabia had received British monetary and military aid from during WW I. The British supported the Shah of Iran. His father was a general who seized power in 1925.

Traditional Divisions Within the Islamic Areas of the Middle East Sunni Muslims Shia Muslims Muslim Splinter Groups (Alawites, Druze, etc.) Tribal groups (Berbers, etc.) Jewish, Christian, Armenian, Kurdish minorities Arabs and Persians (Arabs - descendants of the tribes which spread from the Peninsula in the 500s. Persians – descendants of the tribes in Iran)

Loyality Nationalist identity is a new concept adopted from the West, most people in the Islamic World identify first with religious or tribal group before identifying as citizens of a nation. This was common in Europe before the 1700s.

Sunni vs. Shia Division came upon the death of Mohammed Sunnis claimed the next leader could be selected by a vote of the community elders Shi’tes claimed only a blood relative of Mohammed could be the next leader The Sunni/Shi’te divide resulted in the assassination of Shi’te Caliph Ali and an eventual civil war in 680 C.E. As a result most areas (except Iran) have Sunni rulers

The Spread of Islam Islam spread rapidly in the 6 th and 7 th centuries because of it’s focus upon social justice and an identity beyond the local tribe. – Rights of minorities respected – Protection of women and orphans – Emphasis upon education of the masses – Emphasis upon Social Equality

Another Divisive Element Fundamentalist Religious Movements dedicated to restoring “Islamic” purity have joined with political movements to create states and stand in opposition to foreign (ie. Western) secular influences

The Sauds and the Ikhwan Ikhwan (a Sunni religious movement based upon the teaching of 18 th century cleric Muhammed ibn Wahhab). They raised an army in the early 1900s to help Abdul Aziz ibn Saud conquer Arabia As ibn Saud tried to modernize Arabia with British and American help, he came into conflict with his Ikhwan supporters and crushed them in a series of military battles in the early 1930s.

Despite their military defeat, Wahhabi Islam is still the majority group in Saudi and the king must consult with religious leaders when making major decisions. Groups such as al- Qaeda and the Taliban draw much of their philosophy from the Wahhabi movement.

The Saudi Dilemma As the monarchs have worked with the U.S. to produce oil and support the Saudi nation, fundamentalist groups have attacked “foreign influence” in the name of religion For example, in 1975 King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew who opposed his “Westernization” of Saudi Arabia(the king had abolished slavery and introduced television).

Fundamentalist Philosophy Basic Belief 1: restoration of 6 th century Islamic practices will result in a new Islamic State to dominate North Africa to Indonesia. Basic Belief 2: The adoption of Western technology leads to the adoption of western secular culture and western consumerism

The West Viewed As an Intruder Crusades Post-Napoleonic Domination of Absolutist Governments by Europeans Western domination of the Economy of the Middle East and North Africa The Islamic lands as pawns in the Cold War Western support of the creation of Israel

Fundamentalist Philosophers of the 19 th and 20 th Centuries Al-Afghani Al-Banna Qutb Bin Laden

The Rise of Modern Fundamentalism Intellectual Reaction to European Domination – Islamic Fundamentalism – Islamic Nationalism – Secular Nationalism

Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani Father of modern Islamic Fundamentalism Urged a return to “pure” Islam and a Pan-Islamic union of Muslim nations He make popular a philosophy similar to that of the Wahhabi movement of Arabia

Muslim Brotherhood – founded in Egypt in Branches were later formed in many North African and Middle Eastern countries. They urged a return to Islam and an end to European domination of the politics and economics of Arab countries. The mainstream organization was non-violent, but they were often banned by one party states and splinter groups and responded by forming terrorist cells. Hassan al-Banna, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood

Islamic groups promised a better life through violent overthrow of Arab leaders, the end of European and American influence in the Arab World, and the establishment of a single Islamic government to rule North Africa and the Middle East (a new caliphate) Egyptian writer Syed Qutb, who was tried for treason and hung in 1966

Al-Qaeda – formed in to recruit Muslims to fight the Soviets who had invaded Afghanistan. After the Gulf States supported the United States during Gulf War I, al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden called for the overthrow of the Gulf monarchies and formed terrorist cells to attack the U.S., it’s European allies, and Islamic countries with ties to the U.S. The only way to “protect” Islam was to promote terrorism against the West in Europe and the U.S. Osama bin Laden, founder of al-Qaeda

Islamic Nationlism Rulers try to create a national identity based upon western business law and Islamic family and social law For example, Saudi and Bahrain. (In Bahrain, there is a Shia majority but the royal family is Sunni) For example, Muhmmar Qaddafi in Libya

Secular Nationalism Military leaders often forge a national identity using the army to control fundamentalist and sectarian groups. Ba’ath Party, (Arab Socialist Party, founded in 1947) – popular with leaders who have diverse populations – Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Saddam Hussein (Iraq), Bashar al- Assad (Syria).

Radical Groups of the 20 th and 21 st Centuries Muslim Brotherhood PLO/PFLP Hamas Hezbollah Al-Qaid/Al-Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula Egyptian Islamic Jihad Taliban Boko Haram ISIL/Islamic State

Muslim Brotherhood – political and social organization. Frequently banned when they try to impose one party rule or engage in terrorist activities. After the fall of Egyptian leader Mubarak in 2011, their candidate Muhammed Morsi was elected president. After imposing major changes to the Egyptian constitution, he was overthrown by the Egyptian military. Major Brotherhood leaders were jailed and the Brotherhood was banned.

PLO/PFLP Palestine Liberation Organization (formed 1964)/Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Organizations opposing the establishment of the state of Israel Terrorist attacks in the Middle East and Europe PLO eventually accepted the “two state solution” and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat became the first President of the Palestinian Authority Splinter groups continue to attack Israel

Hamas Founded in the late 1980s, a radical Palestinian group Most Sunni membership, they have often fought Hezbollah In 2006, they took over the government of the Gaza Strip, a territory included in the Camp David Accords as being under the authority of the Palestinian Authority

Hezbollah (Party of God) Shia militia based in Lebanon Founded in 1982 following the Israeli invasion of South Lebanon Funded by Shi’ite Iran

Al-Qaeda Formed by Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden Organized the 9/11 attacks in the United States

Egyptian Islamic Jihad Formed in the 1970 Orchestrated the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in 1981 because he signed the Camp David Accords recognizing the existence of the State of Israel Became an al-Qaeda affiliate in the 1990s

Taliban Formed in Pakistan among young men who had been orphaned during the war with the Soviet Union Young men were organized in orphanages and armed to return and impose fundamentalist Islamic rule Following the withdrawal of the Soviet Union and the U.S., they filled the power vacuum

Boko Haram Founded in 2002 in West Africa Goal is to create an Islamic state in Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Niger Noted for the kidnapping of 276 girls at a school in Nigeria in 2014 Have killed over 10,000 people in West Africa

ISIL/Islamic State Founded in 2006 Gained support from Sunni former supports of Saddam Hussein in Iraq Attempting to establish a fundamentalist Islamic state in Syria and Afghanistan

Examples of Internal Strife because Sectarian Differences Afghanistan Iraq Syria

Tribes in Afghanistan Because of the mountainous terrain and the areas where tribes “co-exist,” it is impossible to get an accurate map of tribal areas in Afghanistan

The Soviet Invasion December 24, 1979 – Soviet troops enter Afghanistan (they remained until February 1989)

Resistance to the Soviets Afghani resistance (the mujahedeen) form and establish bases in the Afghan mountains and in neighboring Pakistan from which to attack the Soviets

The Birth of the Taliban Orphanages are founded in Pakistan to raise boys of families killed in the conflict Units of these boys, the Taliban, cross the border to fight the Soviets

U.S. Aid 1984 – The Reagan Administration agreed to secretly supply aid to the resistance fighters in Afghanistan

The Birth of Al-Qaeda Osama bin Laden used his personal fortune to recruit and train men to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan Al-Qaeda = The Base (refers to the data base of fighters bin Laden recruited) After 9/11 – bin Laden would hide in Taliban held areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan

Afghan Peace Accords Signed in Geneva in 1988 by Soviet Union, Afghanistan, U.S. Last Soviet troops leave Afghanistan in 1989 The expense of the Afghan War bankrupts the Soviets and contributes to the fall of the Soviet Union

U.S. Stops Aid to Afghanistan Once the Soviets were defeated, the U.S. no longer saw Afghanistan as having any strategic importance Afghanistan collapsed into civil war The former royal palace in Kabul.

Results of the 10 Year War Most of the infra- structure destroyed Schools closed Economy collapsed Only cash crop – heroin – smuggled out via Pakistan

Rise of the Taliban Taliban fighters captured the city of Kandahar Taliban expanded their area of control 1996 – Taliban took Kabul Fringe areas fell under the control of tribal chiefs or drug lords

Taliban Rule Imposed “strict” Islamic law – Women forced to veil – Men had to have beards – Music outlawed – Women forbidden to go to school

Bin Laden When the U.S. prepared to attack Iraq in Gulf War I, the Saudis allowed them to use bases within Arabia. Bin Laden offered instead to bring his army from Afghanistan to protect Saudi Fearing bin Laden’s fundamentalism, the Saudis rejected his suggestion Bin Laden then declared a “jihad” upon the Saudi monarchy and the U.S.

September 11, 2001 Al-Qaeda extremists attack the World Trade Center. Planned by bin Laden in Afghanistan, 15 of the 19 hijackers were recruited from Saudi Arabia.

U.S. in Afghanistan U.S. invaded Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) and imposed a government U.S. troops arrived in Afghanistan in 2001 and official withdrew in 2013 (over 2000 Americans killed, over 18,000 wounded). The Taliban was overthrown, but elements remain in the mountains and the authority tribal chiefs replaced the central government in many areas. Bin Laden was killed by American forces in Pakistan in 2011

Operation Enduring Freedom

Iraq Sunni Muslims Shi’ite Muslims Kurds

Ethnic Group 1: Sunni Arabs The Sunnis comprise 37% of the population. They speak Arabic They believe the leaders of the community are selected by consensus While law should be based upon religious beliefs, governmental leaders can make secular law

Ethnic Group 2: Shi’te Arabs They comprise 60% of the population They have different religious customs than the Sunnis They speak Arabic The religious clerics represent the will of God in making law There is no separation between religion and government

Ethnic Group 3: Kurds They are 15% of the population They are Sunni Muslims They speak their own language related to Farsi which is spoken in Iran They have a long tradition of wanting a separate nation from the Arabs of the South They have different cultural practices than the Arabs of the South There are Kurdish populations in Iraq, Iran and Turkey Their area of Iraq has most of the nations oil fields

Ethnicity and Parties Kurdish identity is paramount among younger Kurds who grew up isolated from Arab Iraq – Seek a confederation-style constitution Want a weak federal structure that allows them to keep the regional control they are used to Or a separate Kurdistan united with the Kurds of Turkey Shi’ite parties also have a weak sense of national identity Sunni Arabs are strongly committed to an Iraqi (and Arab) identity

Kurds Kurds want internal autonomy for their areas in the north. Kurds want control of the income from oil and gas resources in their region Kurds want a provision in the constitution permitting them to succeed if they are again persecuted by the central government. – Some minorities in the north are not happy at the prospect of more Kurdish control Ethnic tensions are rising in Kirkuk, in Northern Iraq Turkomen and Christians, who were treated well by Hussein, fear persecution by the Kurds –

Gulf War I Ba’ath Party Saddam Hussein had ruled Iraq since 1979 – he was a military dictator supported by mostly Sunni troops In 1990, he invaded neighboring Kuwait The U.S. organized a coalition to oust the Iraqis from Kuwait The effort was successful Saddam agreed to dismantle his chemical weapons program and submit to U.N. inspections

Saddam Hussein Kuwait City

Gulf War II By 2003, the George W. Bush Administration believed Saddam Hussein was attempting to build a nuclear bomb and produce chemical weapons The decision was made to invade Iraq and overthrow Saddam Saddam’s army was overthrown in three months

The Post-Saddam Government A new government was organized under the leadership of Shi’ite Nouri el-Maliki Sunnis had been allowed to retain their weapons at the end of the war, but were then barred from government employment The Maliki government lost control of the central and northern (Kurdish) provinces The U.S. became involved in a civil war

Rise of ISIL/Islamic State A successor to Al-Qaeda in Iraq which had been founded by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a follower of bin Laden ISIL was organized as an umbrella group for various Sunni groups in Iraq and Syria after the death of al- Zarqawi in 2006 ISIS filled the power vacuum left because of civil war in Iraq and Syria (by 2014, it controlled 30% of Syria including the areas with Syria’s oil and gas fields)

ISIS/ISIL – The Islamic State Goal: to provoke an apocalyptic confrontation between Islam and the United States. They believe they would win such a battle. Wants to provoke the U.S. into sending massive numbers of troops into Syria and Iraq. One way to do this is to behead Western. captives and post the deaths on the Internet. First major terrorist group to recruit using the Internet and Social Media.

ISIS/ISIL in Iraq and Syria

Syria Ruled by Ba’ath Party leader Bashar al-Assad Assad’s father had overthrown the previous president in a 1970 coup The Assad family are Alawites, a minority sect of Shia Islam Syria has large Christian and Sunni communities as well as various Shi’ite groups

The Syrian Civil War Began with protests against the government in 2011 The “Arab Spring” protests were toppling the government of other one party rule dictorators

Syrian Civil War Alawite controlled Syrian Army supported by Hezbollah verses various Sunni factions (Free Syrian Army, etc.) 2013 – a three way fight between the Syrian Army, Sunni factions and ISIS 7.6 million people displaced 4+ million people have fled the country Kurdish units of the Kurdish Workers Party (PKK) have used bases in Syria to attack Turkish troops

Much of Syria has been Destroyed

ISIL in Syria Controls one/third of the country Moves troops between Iraq and Syria Receives support from other fundamentalist groups Is recruiting young Muslims via Social Media in the U.S. and Europe to either join the fight in Syria or conduct “lone wolf” attacks at home

International Dimension of the Sectarian Conflict in Syria U.S. Position – Support for a coalition of anti-Assad, anti-ISIL groups – Prefers to use air strikes rather than “boots on the ground” – U.S. has given over 2 billion dollars in humanitarian aid – U.S. has offered to broker a ceasefire if Assad would resign

Russian Involvement – Russians rely on Syrian ports for their Mediterranean Navy – Russians have provided the Assad government with weapons (especially tanks) and military trainers (rumors of Russian fighting forces arriving in Sept are spreading) – Russians are expanding an airbase in Syria for use by Russian military fighter aircraft – Russians have offered to broker a ceasefire as long as President Assad remains part of a coalition government

Iranian Involvement – Iran channels weapons and money to Syria through Hezbollah – Iran has provided the Assad government with military intelligence – Iran does not want a Sunni militant group, such as ISIS, to become a power in the region

The Humanitarian Crisis In the first nine months of 2015, over 500,000 refugees from Syria, Afghanistan and Africa flooded into Europe Most are fleeing areas when fighting has destroyed their homes and ability to earn a living Greece, Italy, Croatia and Hungary are overwhelmed by the number of immigrants Camps were established to house refugees while they are processed and documented When the camps were full, the rest illegally crossed borders in search of safety

In August 2015, over 100,000 people from Syria and Afghanistan entered Europe

Student “Musts” Must understand that Islam is not monolithic Must understand that nationalist identity is not always paramount in other parts of the world Must understand that religion is a powerful motivator in times of political crisis Must understand that not all people want to “be like the United States” Must understand that sectarian conflict in the Islamic Middle East has lead to the greatest refugee crisis since WW II Must understand that there are many conflicting interests in the Middle East and Islamic World and successful governments must balance these interests

Pro-Western governments in the Arab World are often conflicted between their desire to modernize and be part of the World economy and receive Western military support and their need to pander to fundamentalists within their populations. The following cartoon shows the dilemma the Saudis had with the arrival of American troops in 1990 to protect against a possible Iraqi invasion.

1990 I am offended by your female entertainers

Questions for Consideration What role should the U.S. play in the Middle East and the refugee crisis? Is it possible to re-establish the borders established after World War I? If central governments are re-established, what rights should be guaranteed to minority ethnic and religious groups and who would guarantee them?

Bibliography Dietel, Wilhelm. Holy War. NY: Macmillian, Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab People. Cambridge: Harvard U. Press, Huband, Mark. Warriors of the Prophet: The Struggle for Islam. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Khalidi, Rashid. Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle East. Boston: Beacon Press, Munson, Henry. “Islam and the Resentment of Foreign Domination.” Middle East Policy, Summer Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil & Fundamentalism in Central Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press, The Challenge of Terrorism. Evanston, IL: McDugal Littell, 2002 Wright, Robin. Rock the Casbah: Rage and Rebellion Across the Islamic World. NY: Simon and Schuster, 2011.