Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity Chapter 11

Core Case Study: A Biological Roller Coaster Ride in Lake Victoria  Loss of biodiversity and cichlids  Nile perch: deliberately introduced  Frequent algal blooms Nutrient runoff Spills of untreated sewage Less algae-eating cichlids

Lake Victoria Is a Large Lake in East Africa

Natural Capital Degradation: The Nile Perch

11-1 What Are the Major Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity?  Concept 11-1 Aquatic species are threatened by habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation, all made worse by the growth of the human population.

We Have Much to Learn about Aquatic Biodiversity  Greatest marine biodiversity Coral reefs Estuaries Deep-ocean floor  Biodiversity is higher Near the coast than in the open sea In the bottom region of the ocean than the surface region Why?

Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Aquatic Habitats  Habitat loss and degradation HIPPCO Marine Coastal Ocean floor: effect of trawlers Freshwater Dams Excessive water withdrawal

Natural Capital Degradation: Area of Ocean Bottom Before and After a Trawler

Invasive Species Are Degrading Aquatic Biodiversity  Invasive species HIPPCO 84% coastal area colonized Threaten native species Disrupt and degrade whole ecosystems  Approx. $15 million/hour  Three examples Water hyacinth: Lake Victoria (East Africa) Asian swamp eel: waterways of south Florida Purple loosestrife: indigenous to Europe Treating with natural predators—a weevil species and a leaf-eating beetle—Will it work?

Invasive Water Hyacinths

Science Focus: How Carp Have Muddied Some Waters  Lake Wingra, Wisconsin (U.S.): eutrophic Contains invasive species Purple loosestrife and the common carp  Dr. Richard Lathrop Removed carp from an area of the lake This area appeared to recover

Lake Wingra in Madison, Wisconsin (U.S.)

Population Growth and Pollution Can Reduce Aquatic Biodiversity HIPPCO  (1)Nitrates – (nitrogen fixation) and phosphates mainly from fertilizers enter water Leads to eutrophication  Toxic pollutants from industrial and urban areas  Oceans: 4 % unaffected 40 % strongly  80 % of ocean pollution is land based

Hawaiian Monk Seal

Climate Change Is a Growing Threat  Global warming: sea levels will rise and aquatic biodiversity is threatened Coral reefs Swamp some low-lying islands Drown many highly productive coastal wetlands New Orleans, Louisiana, and New York City

Science Focus: Protecting and Restoring Mangroves  Protect and restore mangroves Reduce the impact of rising sea levels Protect against tropical storms and tsunamis Cheaper than building concrete sea walls Mangrove forests in Indonesia

Overfishing and Extinction: Gone Fishing, Fish Gone  Marine and freshwater fish Threatened with extinction by human activities more than any other group of species  Commercial extinction  Approx 35 % marine and 70 % fresh water – face extinction in our lifetimes.  Collapse of the cod fishery and its domino effect – 99 % sharks ( 75% of commercial fisheries – not sustainable UN FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization )  Bycatch (1/3)  Fishprint 2.5 times

Natural Capital Degradation: Collapse of the Cod Fishery Off the Canadian Coast

Fig. 11-6, p , , , , , ,000 Fish landings (tons) , , , Year

Case Study: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods  Trawler fishing  Purse-seine fishing  Longlining  Drift-net fishing

Major Commercial Fishing Methods Used to Harvest Various Marine Species

Fig. 11-7, p. 256 Fish farming in cage Trawler fishing Spotter airplane Sonar Purse-seine fishing Drift-net fishing Long line fishing Float Buoy lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills

Fig. 11-7, p. 256 Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Trawler fishing Sonar Purse-seine fishing Long line fishing lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Drift-net fishing Float Buoy Fish caught by gills Stepped Art

11-2 How Can We Protect and Sustain Marine Biodiversity?  Concept 11-2 We can help to sustain marine biodiversity by using laws and economic incentives to protect species, setting aside marine reserves to protect ecosystems, and using community-based integrated coastal management.

Legal Protection of Some Endangered and Threatened Marine Species  Why is it hard to protect marine biodiversity? Human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding Much of the damage in the ocean is not visible The oceans are incorrectly viewed as an inexhaustible resource Most of the ocean lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country

Case Study: Protecting Whales: A Success Story… So Far  Cetaceans: Toothed whales -porpose – orca and baleen whales – blue gray  1946: International Whaling Commission (IWC)  1970: U.S. Stopped all commercial whaling Banned all imports of whale products  1986: moratorium on commercial whaling Pros Cons

Examples of Cetaceans

Fig. 11-8a, p. 258

Toothed whales Sperm whale with squid Killer whale Narwhal Bottlenose dolphin Meters

Fig. 11-8b, p. 258

Baleen whales Blue whale Fin whale Bowhead whale Right whale Sei whale Humpback whale Gray whale Minke whale Meters

Baleen whales Blue whale Fin whale Bowhead whale Right whale Sei whale Humpback whale Gray whale Minke whale Meters Fig. 11-8a, p. 258 Toothed whales Sperm whale with squid Killer whale Narwhal Bottlenose dolphin Meters Stepped Art

Norwegian Whalers Harpooning a Sperm Whale

Japan - Norway - Russia - Iceland and others. Which countries oppose sanctions on commercial whaling? Why would they oppose sanctions?

Economic Incentives Can Be Used to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity  Tourism  Economic rewards Reconciliation ecology

Case Study: Holding Out Hope for Marine Turtles  Carl Safina, Voyage of the Turtle Studies of the leatherback turtle Stable in Atlantic – down 95% in the Pacific  Threats to the leatherbacks Trawlers Pollution Climate change  Communities protecting the turtles

An Endangered Leatherback Turtle is Entangled in a Fishing Net

Individuals Matter: Creating an Artificial Coral Reef in Israel  Reuven Yosef, Red Sea Star Restaurant Coral reef restoration Reconciliation ecology Treatment of broken coral with antibiotics

Marine Sanctuaries Protect Ecosystems and Species  Offshore fishing – 370 km – 200 miles off shore Exclusive economic zones High seas  Law of the Sea Treaty – coastal nation cover 36 % of the ocean and 90 % of fish sotocks  Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)  Larger on high seas smaller coastal Why? California leads the way in US

Establishing a Global Network of Marine Reserves: An Ecosystem Approach (1)  Marine reserves Closed to Commercial fishing Dredging Mining and waste disposal Core zone No human activity allowed Less harmful activities allowed E.g., recreational boating and shipping

Establishing a Global Network of Marine Reserves: An Ecosystem Approach (2)  Fully protected marine reserves work fast Fish populations double Fish size grows Reproduction triples Species diversity increase by almost one-fourth

Protecting Marine Biodiversity: Individuals and Communities Together  Integrated Coastal Management Community-based group to prevent further degradation of the ocean Only 1 % of the ocean is closed to fishing and other harmful activities. Scientists – United Kingdom’s Royal Society – CO 2

An Atoll of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef

Video: Humpback whales

Video: Loggerhead turtles

11-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain Marine Fisheries?  Concept 11-3 Sustaining marine fisheries will require improved monitoring of fish populations, cooperative fisheries management among communities and nations, reduction of fishing subsidies, and careful consumer choices in seafood markets.

Estimating and Monitoring Fishery Populations Is the First Step  Maximum sustained yield (MSY): traditional approach  Optimum sustained yield (OSY)  Multispecies management  Large marine systems: using large complex computer models  Precautionary principle

Some Communities Cooperate to Regulate Fish Harvests  Community management of the fisheries  Comanagement of the fisheries with the government

Government Subsidies Can Encourage Overfishing  2007: World Trade Organization, U.S. Proposed a ban on fishing subsidies  Reduce illegal fishing on the high seas and in coastal waters Close ports and markets to such fishers Check authenticity of ship flags Prosecution of offenders

Some Countries Use the Marketplace to Control Overfishing  Individual transfer rights (ITRs) Control access to fisheries New Zealand and Iceland Difficult to enforce  Problems with the ITR approach

Consumer Choices Can Help to Sustain Fisheries and Aquatic Biodiversity  1997: Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), London Supports sustainable fishing Certifies sustainably produced seafood  Manage global fisheries more sustainably Individuals Organizations Governments How can they do this?

Solutions: Managing Fisheries

Fig , p. 265 SOLUTIONS Managing Fisheries Fishery RegulationsBycatch Set catch limits well below the maximum sustainable yield Use wide-meshed nets to allow escape of smaller fish Improve monitoring and enforcement of regulations Use net escape devices for seabirds and sea turtles Ban throwing edible and marketable fish back into the sea Economic Approaches Sharply reduce or eliminate fishing subsidies Charge fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from publicly owned offshore waters Aquaculture Restrict coastal locations for fish farms Control pollution more strictly Certify sustainable fisheries Protect Areas Establish no-fishing areas Depend more on herbivorous fish species Establish more marine protected areas Nonnative Invasions Rely more on integrated coastal management Kill organisms in ship ballast water Consumer Information Filter organisms from ship ballast water Label sustainably harvested fish Dump ballast water far at sea and replace with deep- sea water Publicize overfished and threatened species

11-4 How Should We Protect and Sustain Wetlands?  Concept 11-4 To maintain the ecological and economic services of wetlands, we must maximize preservation of remaining wetlands and restoration of degraded and destroyed wetlands.

Coastal and Inland Wetlands Are Disappearing around the World  Highly productive wetlands  Provide natural flood and erosion control  Maintain high water quality; natural filters  Effect of rising sea level  Inland Wetlands Lost – US +50% - New Zealand 92% - Italy 95%

We Can Preserve and Restore Wetlands  Laws for protection  Mitigation banking – create new wetlands for damaged Ecologists argue this as a last resort

Natural Capital Restoration: Wetland Restoration in Canada

Individuals Matter: Restoring a Wetland  Jim Callender: 1982  Scientific knowledge + hard work = a restored wetland in California, U.S.  Marsh used again by migratory fowl

Case Study: Can We Restore the Florida Everglades? (1)  “River of Grass”: south Florida, U.S.  Since 1948: damaged Drained Diverted Paved over Nutrient pollution from agriculture Invasive plant species  1947: Everglades National Park unsuccessful protection project

Case Study: Can We Restore the Florida Everglades? (2)  1970s: political haggling  1990: Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) Restore the curving flow of most of the Kissimmee River Remove canals and levees in strategic locations Flood 240 sq. km farmland to create artificial marshes Goal?

Case Study: Can We Restore the Florida Everglades? (3)  Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) cont… Create reservoirs and underground water storage areas Build new canals, reservoirs and efficient pumping systems  Why isn’t this plan working?

The World’s Largest Restoration Project

11-5 How Can Protect and Sustain Freshwater Lakes, Rivers, and Fisheries?  Concept 11-5 Freshwater ecosystems are strongly affected by human activities on adjacent lands, and protecting these ecosystems must include protection of their watersheds.

Freshwater Ecosystems Are under Major Threats  Think: HIPPCO

Case Study: Can the Great Lakes Survive Repeated Invasions by Alien Species?  Collectively, world’s largest body of freshwater  Invaded by at least 162 nonnative species Sea lamprey Zebra mussel Good and bad Quagga mussel Asian carp

Zebra Mussels Attached to a Water Current Meter in Lake Michigan, U.S.

Managing River Basins Is Complex and Controversial  Columbia River: U.S. and Canada Dam system – (40% of the world’s rivers) Pros and cons?  Snake River: Washington state, U.S. Hydroelectric dams Pros and cons Electricity – flood control – irrigation – water supply Salmon down 94 % $3 billion

Natural Capital: Ecological Services of Rivers

We Can Protect Freshwater Ecosystems by Protecting Watersheds  Freshwater ecosystems protected through Laws Economic incentives Restoration efforts  Wild rivers and scenic rivers  Sustainable management of freshwater fishes

Video: Salmon swimming upstream

11-6 What Are the Priorities for Sustained Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services?  Concept 11-6 Sustaining the world’s biodiversity and ecosystem services will require mapping terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, maximizing protection of undeveloped terrestrial and aquatic areas, and carrying out ecological restoration projects worldwide.

We Need to Set Priorities for Protecting Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services  2002: Edward O. Wilson Complete the mapping of the world’s terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity Keep old-growth forests intact; cease their logging Identify and preserve hotspots and deteriorating ecosystem services that threaten life Ecological restoration projects Make conservation financially rewarding