1. Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity
Ch 11
Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity

2. What Are the Major Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity? (4)
Objective 1
What Are the Major Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity? (4)

3. 1) Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Aquatic Habitats
Habitat loss and degradation
Marine
Coastal
Ocean floor: effect of trawlers
Freshwater
Dams
Excessive water withdrawal

4. Ocean Bottom Before & After a Trawler

5. We Have Much to Learn about Aquatic Biodiversity – Educate people!!!
Greatest marine biodiversity
Coral reefs
Estuaries
Deep-ocean floor
Biodiversity is higher
Near the coast than in the open sea
In the bottom region of the ocean than the surface region

6. 2) Invasive Species Are Degrading Aquatic Biodiversity
Threaten native species
Disrupt and degrade whole ecosystems
Three examples
Water hyacinth: Lake Victoria (East Africa)
Asian swamp eel: waterways of south Florida
Purple loosestrife: indigenous to Europe
Treating with natural predators—a weevil species and a leaf-eating beetle—Will it work?

7. Invasive Water Hyacinths

8. 3) Population Growth and Pollution Can Reduce Aquatic Biodiversity
Nitrates and phosphates mainly from fertilizers enter water
Leads to eutrophication
Toxic pollutants from industrial and urban areas

9. Hawaiian Monk Seal

10. 4) Climate Change Is a Growing Threat
Global warming: sea levels will rise and aquatic biodiversity is threatened
Coral reefs
Swamp some low-lying islands
Drown many highly productive coastal wetlands
New Orleans, Louisiana, and New York City

11. Natural Capital Degradation: Collapse of the Cod Fishery Off the Canadian Coast

12. Objective 2
What are the Major Commercial Fishing Methods Used to Harvest Various Marine Species? (4)

13. Trawler fishing – used to catch fishes and shellfish that live on or near the ocean floor.
Purse-seine fishing = used to catch surface-dwelling species. A spotter plane is used to locate the fish.
Longlining = putting out lines (up to 80 miles long), hung with thousands of bait hooks.
Drift-net fishing = fish are caught by huge fish nets

14. Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills
Fish farming in cage
Trawler fishing
Spotter airplane
Sonar
Purse-seine fishing
Drift-net fishing
Long line fishing
Figure 11.7
Major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct.
Float
Buoy
lines with hooks
Deep sea aquaculture cage
Fish caught by gills
Fig. 11-7, p. 256

15. How Can We Protect and Sustain Marine Biodiversity? (4)
Objective 3
How Can We Protect and Sustain Marine Biodiversity? (4)

16. 1) Create laws to protect species
Legal Protection of Some Endangered and Threatened Marine Species
Why is it hard to protect marine biodiversity?
Human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding
Much of the damage in the ocean is not visible
The oceans are incorrectly viewed as an inexhaustible resource
Most of the ocean lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country

17. Examples of Cetaceans Figure 11.8
Examples of cetaceans, which can be classified as either toothed whales or baleen whales.
Fig. 11-8a, p. 258

18. Examples of Cetaceans continued
Figure 11.8
Examples of cetaceans, which can be classified as either toothed whales or baleen whales.
Fig. 11-8b, p. 258

19. Norwegian Whalers Harpooning a Sperm Whale

20. 2) Create Economic Incentives to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity
Tourism
Sea turtle Tourism bring almost 3 times more money than the sale of their meat, leather, and eggs.
Economic rewards
Reconciliation ecology
The science of inventing, establishing, and maintaining habitats to conserve species diversity were people live, work, or play.

21. An Endangered Leatherback Turtle is Entangled in a Fishing Net

22. Marine Sanctuaries Protect Ecosystems & Species
Offshore fishing
Exclusive economic zones
Foreign fishing vessels can take certain quotas of fish with governments permission
High seas
Areas beyond the legal jurisdiction of any country
Law of the Sea Treaty
Coastal nations have jurisdiction over 36% of the ocean’s surface and 90% of the world’s fish stocks.
This has been abused
Instead of protecting fishing grounds , many governments have allowed/encouraged overfishing
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
Areas of ocean partially protected from human acitivites
4000 MPAs worldwide (200 in US)

23. 3) Setting aside marine reserves to protect ecosystems
Closed to
Commercial fishing
Dredging
Mining and waste disposal
Core zone
No human activity allowed
Less harmful activities allowed
E.g., recreational boating and shipping
Fully protected marine reserves work fast
Fish populations double
Fish size grows
Reproduction triples
Species diversity increase by almost one-fourth

24. 4) Using community-based integrated coastal management
Community-based group to prevent further degradation of the ocean

25. An Atoll of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
An atoll is a coral island (or islands) that encircles a lagoon partially or completely

26. How Should We Manage and Sustain Marine Fisheries?
Objective 4
How Should We Manage and Sustain Marine Fisheries?

27. 1) Improve Monitoring of Fishery Populations Is the First Step
Maximum sustained yield (MSY): traditional approach used to estimated the maximum number of fish that can be harvested annually with out causing a population drop.
Optimum sustained yield (OSY): attempts to take into account interactions among species (more room for error)
Multispecies management: takes into account their competitive and predator-prey interactions
Large marine systems: using large complex computer models. The problem is getting groups of nations to cooperate in planning and managing such large systems.
Precautionary principle: sharply reduce fish harvests and closing some overfished areas until they recover.

28. 2) Cooperative fisheries management among communities & nations Fish Harvests
Community management of the fisheries
Norway’s Lofoten fishery
Has been sustained w/o government regulation for 100 years
Co-management of the fisheries with the government
A central government typically sets quotas for various species and divides the quotas among the communities.
The government may also limit fishing seasons and the type of gear used.
The community manages inshore fisheries and the government manages offshore fisheries.

29. 3) Government Subsidies Can Encourage Overfishing…so reduce them
2007: World Trade Organization, U.S.
Proposed a ban on fishing subsidies
Some marine scientists think $10-14 billion is spent to encourage overfishing.
Reduce illegal fishing on the high seas & in coastal waters
Close ports and markets to such fishers
Check authenticity of ship flags
Prosecution of offenders

30. 4) Consumer Choices Can Help to Sustain Fisheries and Aquatic Biodiversity
1997: Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), London
Supports sustainable fishing
Certifies sustainably produced seafood
2006: Walmart pledged to only see MSC certified fish
Manage global fisheries more sustainably
Individuals
Organizations
Governments

32. How Should We Protect and Sustain Wetlands?
Objective 5
How Should We Protect and Sustain Wetlands?

33. Coastal and Inland Wetlands Are Disappearing around the World
Highly productive wetlands
Provide natural flood and erosion control
Maintain high water quality; natural filters
Effect of rising sea levels
New Zealand has lost 92% of its coastal wetlands
Italy has lost 95% of its coastal wetlands

34. 1) We Can Preserve and Restore Wetlands
Laws for protection
US laws require a federal permit to fill in or to deposit dredged materials into wetlands
Mitigation banking
Allows destruction of existing wetlands as longs as an equal area of the same type of wetland is created or restored.
The stated goal of current US federal policy is zero net loss in the function and value of coastal and inland wetlands
Ecologists argue this as a last resort and that the new wetland should be created and evaluated before the old one is destroyed.

35. Case Study: Can We Restore the Florida Everglades?
“River of Grass”: south Florida, U.S.
Since 1948: damaged
Drained
Diverted
Paved over
Nutrient pollution from agriculture
Invasive plant species
1947: Everglades National Park unsuccessful protection project

36. 1990: Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
CERP
1990: Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
Restore the curving flow of most of the Kissimmee River
Remove canals and levees in strategic locations
Flood 240 sq. km farmland to create artificial marshes
Create reservoirs and underground water storage areas
Build new canals, reservoirs and efficient pumping systems

37. CERP

38. The World’s Largest Restoration Project

39. How Can Protect and Sustain Freshwater Lakes, Rivers, and Fisheries?
Objective 6
How Can Protect and Sustain Freshwater Lakes, Rivers, and Fisheries?

40. Freshwater Ecosystems Are under Major Threats
Think: HIPPCO
H stands for Habitat Loss and Degradation.
I stands for Invasive Species!!
The first P In HIPPCO is coastal Population Growth.
The second P is Pollution!!
The C in HIPPCO is Climate Change!
The BIG O in HIPPCO is OVERFISHING!!
The “fishprint” is defined as the area of ocean needed to sustain the consumption of an average person, a nation, or the world. All the world’s nations together are overfishing the global oceans by an unsustainable 157%!!!!

41. Zebra Mussels Attached to a Water Current Meter in Lake Michigan, U.S.

42. Managing River Basins Is Complex and Controversial
Columbia River: U.S. and Canada
Dam system
Pros and cons
Snake River: Washington state, U.S.
Hydroelectric dams

44. 1) We Can Protect Freshwater Ecosystems by Protecting Watersheds
Freshwater ecosystems protected through
Laws
Economic incentives
Restoration efforts
Wild rivers and scenic rivers
Sustainable management of freshwater fishes

45. Objective 7
What Are the Priorities for Sustained Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services?
Sustaining the world’s biodiversity and ecosystem services will require mapping terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, maximizing protection of undeveloped terrestrial and aquatic areas, and carrying out ecological restoration projects worldwide.

46. We Need to Set Priorities for Protecting Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services
2002: Edward O. Wilson - Priority list
1) Complete the mapping of the world’s terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity
2) Keep old-growth forests intact; cease their logging
3) Identify and preserve hotspots and deteriorating ecosystem services that threaten life
4) Create more Ecological restoration projects
5) Make conservation financially rewarding

47. Practice Questions

48. Some 90% of fish living in the ocean spawn
off the edges of the continental shelf.
in the depths of the ocean.
in the open ocean.
in coral reefs, mangrove forests, coastal wetlands, and rivers.

49. 2. Blamed for two-thirds of all fish extinctions in the U. S
2. Blamed for two-thirds of all fish extinctions in the U.S., this ongoing problem is a major source of ecosystem disruption.
agricultural runoff
water pollution from city sewage systems
over fishing
introduced invasive species

50. 3. The largest projected population growth should occur
along inland rivers.
at large coastal cities.
at large inland cities.
as development and conversion of farmland increase.

51. 4. Average sea level
will probably rise between 7 inches and 5 feet over the next 100 years.
will flood many low-lying cities and nations over the next 100 years.
has increased by 4-8 inches over the last 100 years.
all of the above

52. 5. When marine reserves are established to protect species within them, studies have shown that within 2-4 years after strict protection begins
all of the choices
reproduction triples.
fish populations double.
fish size increases by about one-third.

53. 6. Global warming leading to rising sea levels is thought to
kill most coral reefs and mangrove forests, leading to disastrous changes in aquatic ecosystems.
help coral reefs since rising sea levels will open new habitat for potentially greater coral reef area.
produce no effect on coral reefs. Coral reef damage results from pollution and reef degradation, not sea level changes.
damage coral reefs, unless waters rise slowly enough for them to adapt, and other environmental stressors are low.

54. 7. Each year, up to $34 billion are given as fishing subsidies
7. Each year, up to $34 billion are given as fishing subsidies. These subsidies
provide monies for ships, fuel, equipment, and research.
are used in education programs designed to heighten public awareness of fishing practices and needed management systems.
pay fishermen not to fish, offsetting their annual losses while allowing marine fish populations to recover.
all of the above

55. 8. Studies clearly indicate that…
inland wetlands are vitally important areas that must be preserved, maintained, and/or created.
inland wetlands have little ecological value, provide few ecological services, and may be developed without many ecological consequences.
inland wetlands have ecological value, yet may be substituted by agricultural lands to achieve the same value.
inland wetlands' ecological value is significantly less than the health problems they generate through acting as mosquito and other parasitic organism breeding grounds.

56. 9. Given that humans have been on the earth for a long time, modifying it to suit their own desires, it comes as no surprise to learn that aquatic species have been pushed out of at least ________% of their habitat. 80 20 50 99

57. 10. Wild rivers are those
that are relatively inaccessible, except by trail.
that are of great scenic value, free of dams, mostly undeveloped, and accessible in only a few places by roads.
that border, or are within, wildlife preserves.
found in national parks.

58. For your summary, complete
# on page 274A
Summary