Writing a Classical Argument Chapter 13 Writing a Classical Argument

What is Argument? A classical argument involves two components: Truth seeking: a responsible search for the best course of action or solution to a problem, taking into account all available information and points of view Relax our certainties and be willing to change our views Persuasion: the art of making a claim on an issue and justifying it convincingly so that the audience’s initial resistance to your position is overcome and they are moved toward your position Be certain in our claims and get others to change their views

Process and Product Process: and argument is an act of inquiry characterized by fact-finding, information gathering, and consideration of alternative points of view Produce: someone’s contribution to the conversation, a formal speech, or a written position paper As a process, the goal of an argument is to seek the truth As a product, the goal of an argument is persuasion

Stages of Argument Development Personal opinion: the beginning of an argument consists of expressing strong personal opinions without being able to justify them or support them with facts Claim supported by one or more reasons: an argument consisting of reasons and evidence Increased attention to truth seeking: more engaged with various views, have conducted research and evaluated alternate perspectives; willing to change position

Stages cont. Articulate assumptions within argument: able to identify and analyze assumptions and support them Link your argument to the beliefs of your audience: adapt structure and tone of argument based on the resistance level of the audience

Creating an Argument Frame Find an arguable issue: an issue that invites more than one reasonable answer which can lead to a disagreement Excludes personal taste issues, for example: baseball is more fun than soccer Question can be framed as a yes/no choice or more openly, inviting different possible answers: What should we do? How should we do it? State your claim: what position are you taking on this issue? See examples on pg 314

Argument Frame cont. Articulate reasons: your claim needs to be supported by reasons and evidence A reason is a sub-claim that supports your main claim. Your reason is linked to your claim through connecting words such as because, therefore, so, consequently, and thus Examples on page 314-15 In small groups, complete the activity on page 315

Underlying Assumptions Every time you make a claim with a reason, you make a silent assumption that may need to be articulated and examined. See example on page 316. Examine your underlying assumption in order to be sure your audience will accept it. If not, you need to make it explicit and support it As a class, do activity on pg. 317

Effective Use of Evidence Each of your reasons need to be supported either by sub arguments or by evidence Evidence includes facts, examples, summaries, statistics, testimony, or other relevant data that will persuade your readers to accept your reasons Evidence is not the same as proof. Evidence presents the best case for your claim without purporting to be the whole truth Go through types of evidence on pages 317-319

The STAR Criteria It is often difficult to create arguments in which all of your evidence fully meets the STAR criteria. See example on page 320 Sufficiency: is there enough evidence? Typicality: are the chosen data representative and typical? Accuracy: are the data accurate and current? Relevance: are the data relevant to the claim?

Addressing Objections & Counterarguments Anticipating objections-imagine how your readers might object to your reasons and/or underlying assumption Question yourself on how others might interpret your claim, put yourself in their shoes How would a reader object to my reason? How could a reader object to my underlying assumption?

Responding to Counterarguments First, summarize the objection or counterargument fairly Next, decide how you are going to respond to it: are you going to refute it or concede to it? If you refute an argument, you analyze its shortcomings and explain why it’s not a valid objection If you concede to an argument, acknowledge that the objection is fair and that the claim is complex; then be sure to shift attention back to your claim with more supporting evidence

Qualifying Your Claim Limit the scope or focus of a claim to make it less sweeping and therefore less vulnerable. See examples on page 325 Limit your claim with qualifiers such as: perhaps, often, probably, maybe, generally, usually, sometimes, likely, etc.

Seeking Audience Based Reasons Reasons that depend on underlying assumptions, values, or beliefs that your targeted audience already holds. When formulating your claim and reasons, be aware of what people already think of your claim Seek audience based reasons whenever possible, this will make it easier for you to support your claim and have it accepted by your readers

Ethos & Pathos Ethos: present yourself as credible and trustworthy. In order for your audience to accept your claim, they must see you as knowledgeable, trustworthy, and fair Convince your audience that you know your subject matter Use evidence responsibly Be fair to alternate views Search and share values and assumption Show that you care about your subject and why your readers should too

Ethos & Pathos cont. Pathos: appeal to your reader’s emotions Include storylike anecdotes Choose words with emotional or value-laden connotations Use vivid language If allowed, use visuals

Structure of a Classical Argument Paper Introduction Hook Explanation of issue and needed background Thesis (claim) Forecasting passage Although statement Connecting words

Structure cont. Presentation of writer’s position Main body of essay Presents and supports each reason in turn Each reason is tied to a value or belief held by the audience Summary of opposing views Response to opposing views Refutes or concedes Shows weakness in opposing views May concede to some strengths in opposing views

Structure cont. Conclusion Brings essay to close Sums up argument Leaves strong, lasting impression Calls for action

Generating Ideas Make a list of communities you belong to Family, campus, dorm Brainstorm contested issues in those communities Explore possible causes for disagreement Explore your own point of view Determine amount of research needed Choose your issue and begin research Brainstorm claims and reasons on various sides of the issue

Shaping & Drafting Analyze your audience How much do they know about your issue? What is your audience’s current attitude towards your issue? How do your audience’s values and beliefs differ from your own? What values and beliefs do you share with your audience?