 To increase crop yields, we can mix the genes of similar types of organisms and mix the genes of different organisms. Artificial selection has been used for centuries to develop genetically improved varieties of crops. Genetic engineering develops improved strains at an exponential pace compared to artificial selection.  Controversy has arisen over the use of genetically modified food (GMF).

 Genetic engineering involves splicing a gene from one species and transplanting the DNA into another species. Figure 13-19

 The winged bean, a GMF, could be grown to help reduce malnutrition and the use of large amounts of inorganic fertilizers. Figure 13-20

 GMO- scientists directly alter the genes of organisms including crop plants and livestock In the past we’ve used artificial selection/selective breeding  GM crops are modified to be- Herbicide resistant so farmers can spray herbicide on weeds w/o killing their crops Pest resistant Ice resistant (strawberries)

 GM foods are a big business  Globally in 2012, 17 million farmers grew GM foods on 170 million ha (420 million acres)— 11% of all cropland 90% of U.S. corn, soybean, cotton, and canola are GM plants  Most GM crops are herbicide and pesticide resistant Large-scale farmers grow crops more efficiently

 Traditional breeding changes organisms through selective breeding of the same or similar species Works with entire organisms in the field Genes come together on their own Uses the process of selection  Genetic engineering mixes genes of different species Works with genetic material in the lab Directly creates novel combinations of genes Resembles the process of mutation

 Controversy has arisen over the use of genetically modified food (GMF). Critics fear that we know too little about the long-term potential harm to human and ecosystem health.  There is controversy over legal ownership of genetically modified crop varieties and whether GMFs should be labeled.

 As GM crops expanded, scientists, citizens, and policymakers became concerned Impacts on human health, but support of this has been elusive  Ecological concerns over escaping transgenes They could harm non-target organisms Pests could evolve resistance They could ruin the integrity of native ancestral races and interbreed with closely related wild plants  Precautionary principle  idea that one shouldn’t undertake a new action until the effects of that action are understood

 Concerns of GM crops include GM plants could breed with the wild variety found in nature = decrease in plant diversity GM plants could create “superpests” resistant to the GM “supercrops” Consequences of GM crops are still open for debate because it is newer technology  Concern about possibly impacting human health w/ altered proteins

 Supports of GM crops claim they reduce carbon emissions by: Fewer pesticide applications = tractors using less fuel Herbicide resistant crops encourage no-till farming then more carbon is sequestered in the soil  GM crop research suggests that GM crops reduced carbon emissions equivalent to taking 3.6 million cars off the road

 Environmental Benefits: Higher yields Promotes low-tillage techniques  Decrease soil erosion  Decrease energy consumption from machinery Lower fertilizer requirement Reduce pesticide use Drought resistance crops reduce irrigation needs

 Economic Benefits: Produces higher yeilds Less money spent on pesticide, herbicide, fertilizer, water Increased nutritional value Low tillage techniques:  Lower fossil fuels needed and released Less pesticide/herbicide use = decrease healthcare costs for farmers

 Environmental Disadvantages: Insect resistant crops could reduce beneficial insects Drought resistant and salinity resistant plants increases pressure to convert semi-arid land into farmland = decrease in biodiversity in those areas Lower genetic variability  Wheat varieties in China have dropped from 10,000 in 1949 to 1,000 by 1970

 Economic Disadvantages Higher yields = increase in soil depletion Produces sterile seeds  Have patent seeds which must be purchased annually (poor farmers unable to purchase) Cost of tracking and labeling GM crops in food supply Research and development

 Ethical and economic (rather than scientific) concerns have largely driven the public debate  People don’t like “tinkering” with the food supply  With increasing use, people are forced to use GM products or go to special effort to avoid them  Critics say multinational corporations threaten the small farmer  Research is funded by corporations that profit if GM foods are approved for use Approval decisions may not match Environmental Impact Statement findings (e.g., GM sugar beets)

 GM crops have not eradicated hunger or helped poor farmers in developing nations GM crops do not focus on increased nutrition, drought tolerance, salinity tolerance, etc.  Unlike the Green Revolution, which was a public venture, the “genetic revolution” has been driven by corporate financial interests

 Corporations patent transgenes and protect them Monsanto has launched 145 lawsuits against several hundred farmers for having transgenes in their fields without buying them from Monsanto  Widespread concern exists that organic foods will be contaminated by GM plants

 Consumers in Europe have expressed widespread unease about genetic engineering U.S. consumers have largely accepted GMOs  Europe blocked import of American agricultural products from 1998 to 2003 because of concerns about the products being genetically modified The United States sued the European Union before the World Trade Organization for hindering free trade  The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety lays out guidelines for open information about exported crops

 Some nations now demand that GM foods be labeled  United States does not require labeling Large majority of Americans would like labeling Petition of over 1 million signatures asked the FDA to start requiring labeling  Labeling proponents: people have a right to know what they are eating  Labeling opponents: labeling implies that the food is dangerous  In countries where food is labeled, some products stopped being stocked due to consumer aversion