Chapter 14: Social Psychology

Learning Outcomes Define attitude and discuss factors that shape attitudes. Discuss prejudice and discrimination.

Learning Outcomes Discuss factors that contribute to interpersonal attraction and love. Define social perception and describe factors that influence it.

Learning Outcomes Explain why people obey authority figures and conform to social norms. Discuss factors that contribute to aggression.

Learning Outcomes Describe differences between the ways in which people behave as individuals and as members of a group.

What is Social Psychology? Study of the nature and causes of people’s thoughts and behavior in social situations Situationist perspective – Social influence goads people into doing things they would not usually do

Attitudes

What are Attitudes? Attitudes include: – cognitive evaluations – feelings – behavioral tendencies

The A-B Problem Factors that affect the link between Attitudes (A) and Behavior (B) – Specificity – Strength of attitudes – Vested interest – Accessibility

Truth or Fiction? People vote their consciences.

Truth or Fiction? People vote their consciences. FICTION!

Attitude Formation Conditioning and observational learning – Learned attitudes Cognitive appraisal – Form opinion after appraisal and evaluation of situation

Changing Attitudes Elaboration likelihood model – Central route of persuasion Inspires thoughtful consideration of evidence and arguments – Peripheral route of persuasion Associate with positive or negative cues

The Persuasive Message Repeated exposure to things and people enhances their appeal “Fear” appeal is more persuasive than facts

The Persuasive Communicator Persuasive communicator – Shows expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness, or similarity to the audience – Fan adoration

The Persuasive Communicator Confronted with information that counters one’s attitude – Selective avoidance – Selective exposure Context of the message – Environment and mood can be persuasive

The Persuaded Audience People with high self esteem and low social anxiety are more resistant to social pressure

Cognitive Dissonance Theory When attitudes are inconsistent, individuals are motivated to reduce that inconsistency Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) – People paid less rated the task more interesting Attitude-discrepant behavior Effort justification

Truth or Fiction? We appreciate things more when we have to work for them.

Truth or Fiction? We appreciate things more when we have to work for them. TRUE!

Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice – attitude – Cognitive level – expectation that members of target group will behave poorly – Emotional level – negative feeling Discrimination - behavior Stereotype – fixed conventional attitudes – May be positive or negative

Truth or Fiction? People have condemned billions of other people without ever meeting them or learning their names.

Truth or Fiction? People have condemned billions of other people without ever meeting them or learning their names. TRUE!

Stereotyping Prejudice involves stereotyping - Attitude – May be positive or negative

Sources of Prejudice Dissimilarity Social conflict Social learning Information processing Social categorization

Attraction and Love

Physical Appearance Factors contributing to attraction – Physical appearance Standards for beauty are cross-cultural

What Features Contribute to Facial Attractiveness?

Truth or Fiction? Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Truth or Fiction? Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. FICTION!

Gender Differences in Selection of Romantic Partner Gender differences in preferences – Females – more emphasis on professional status – Males – more emphasis on physical appearance Parental investment model – evolutionary forces

When It Comes to Sex, Red May Mean “Go” The color red is associated with attraction – Reddening of skin by elevated estrogen levels – Preference for color red in assessing attractiveness – Red as a sign of good health

Attraction-Similarity Hypothesis Our partners tend to be like us – Tend to be similar in terms of race, ethnicity, age, level of education, and religion Factors that influence our preferences – Propinquity – Reciprocity

Truth or Fiction? Opposites attract.

Truth or Fiction? Opposites attract. FICTION!

Love Triangular model of love – Intimacy – Passion – Commitment Romantic love combines intimacy and passion Consummate love combines all three

The Triangular Model of Love

Social Perception

What is Social Perception? Examines the ways in which we form and modify our impressions of others

Primacy and Recency Effects First impressions matter a great deal – Primacy effect Recency effect

Attribution Theory Process by which one draws conclusions about the influences on another’s behavior Dispositional attributions – Internal factors Situational attributions – External factors

Attribution Theory Fundamental attribution error – Attribute too much of other’s behavior on dispositional – Cultural bias – individualistic cultures

Truth or Fiction? We tend to hold others responsible for their misdeeds but to see ourselves as victims of circumstances when we misbehave.

Truth or Fiction? We tend to hold others responsible for their misdeeds but to see ourselves as victims of circumstances when we misbehave. TRUE!

Attribution Theory Actor – Observer effect – attribute other’s behavior to dispositional factors and our own to situational factors Self-serving bias – Ascribe successes to internal factors; failures to external influences

Social Influence

What is Social Influence? Examines the ways people influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior of others

Obedience to Authority Milgram Studies – Majority complied to demands of authority even when that required they ‘inflict’ a harmful shock on innocent people – Deception and Truth Learners were confederates

The Experimental Setup in the Milgram Studies

Truth or Fiction? Most people will torture an innocent person if they are ordered to do so.

Truth or Fiction? Most people will torture an innocent person if they are ordered to do so. TRUE!

Why Did People in the Milgram Studies Obey the Experimenters? Socialization Lack of social comparison Perception of legitimacy of authority Foot-in-the-door technique Inaccessibility of values Buffers between perpetrator and victim

Conformity Conform – when we change our behavior to adhere to social norms Social norms – widely accepted expectations concerning social behaviors

Conformity Asch Study – Most people will conform, even when they are wrong

Cards Used in the Asch Study on Conformity

Truth or Fiction? Seeing is believing.

Truth or Fiction? Seeing is believing. FICTION!

Factors that Contribute to Conformity Collectivist culture Desire to be liked by group members Low self-esteem Social shyness Lack of familiarity with task Group size Social support

Aggression

Biology, Chemistry, and Aggression Biology – Other brain structures in humans moderate aggressive instincts evident in lower animals Chemistry – Testosterone

Psychological Aspects of Aggression Psychodynamic theory Cognitive factors Behavioral perspective – Social cognitive theory Situational influences

Group Behavior

Social Facilitation Presence of others facilitates performance – Increased arousal or motivation – Evaluation apprehension Presence of others impairs performance – Social loafing – Diffusion of responsibility

Group Decision Making Social decision schemes – Majority-wins – Truth-wins – Two-thirds majority – First-shift rule

Polarization and the “Risky Shift” Polarization effect – taking an extreme position – Risky shift Diffusion of responsibility – allow groups to take greater risks

Groupthink Unrealistic group decision making in which external realities are ignored Influenced by – Dynamic group leader – External threat – Cohesiveness of group

Contributors to Groupthink Feelings of invulnerability Group’s belief in its rightness Discrediting of information contrary to decision Pressure for group conformity Stereotyping of members of out-group

Mob Behavior and Deindividuation Highly emotional crowds may induce “mob behavior” Deindividuation – Reduced self-awareness and lower concern of social evaluation

Truth or Fiction? Nearly 40 people stood by and did nothing while a woman was being stabbed to death.

Truth or Fiction? Nearly 40 people stood by and did nothing while a woman was being stabbed to death. TRUE!

Altruism and the Bystander Effect Factors that influence decision to help – Good mood – Empathic – Believe an emergency exists – Assume responsibility to act – Know what to do – Know the people who need help – Similarity to people who need help