1. Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning Chapter 6

2. Learning is a lasting change in a behavior or mental process as the result of an experience. a simple reflexive reaction is not learning learning about changes in mental processes is harder to observe and study than learning that can be demonstrated through actions. Mr. Flieger needs to LEARN how to add a picture to a slide without distorting it.

3. Life without Learning Learning is more than books and tests. Without learning our lives would simply be a series of reflexes and instincts. ◦We would not be able to communicate, and we would have no memories of the past or goals for the future.

4. Learning’s Effects on Behavior In humans, learning has a much larger influence on behavior than instinct does. ◦Learning represents an evolutionary advance over instinct.

5. Types of Learning SIMPLE AND COMPLEX LEARNING

6. Simple Learning Habituation: Learning NOT to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus that one determines to be harmless.

7. Simple Learning Mere Exposure Effect: A preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed. Which do you prefer? Which did your parents drink when you were a little kid?

8. Complex Learning Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning, such as classical and operant conditioning which can be described in terms of stimuli and responses. ◦Classical conditioning is more simple learning, operant conditioning is more complex learning.

9. Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning One of most famous people in the study of learning is Ivan Pavlov. Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov stumbled upon classical conditioning while he was experimenting on his dog. ◦Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (stimuli without the power to provoke a reflex) acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.

10. Pavlov’s Findings Explained Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with a natural reflex-producing (involuntary) stimulus, will begin to produce a learned response, even when it is presented by itself. Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.

11. Components of Conditioning The FIVE main components of Classical Conditioning: ◦ Neutral Stimulus: elicits no reaction. ◦ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS or US): elicits a natural, reflexive response. ◦ Unconditioned Response (UCR or UR): the natural, reflexive response elicited by the UCS. ◦ Conditioned Response (CR): a response that is the same as the UCR, but that is developed through training. ◦ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a once-neutral stimulus that, because of training, now elicits the conditioned response.

12. Pavlov’s Experiment

13. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) UCS: A stimulus that automatically--without conditioning or learning-- provokes a reflexive response. In Pavlov’s experiment, food was used as the UCS because it produced a salivation reflex. ◦Classical conditioning cannot happen without UCS. The only behaviors that can be classically conditioned are those that are produced by unconditioned stimuli.

14. Unconditioned Response (UCR) UCR: A response resulting from an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR was the dog salivating when it saw or smelled food. ◦Realize that the UCS-UCR connection involves no learning or acquisition.

15. From Unconditioned to Conditioned During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. ◦Upon repetition, the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the same response as the UCS. Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus. =

16. Conditioned Stimulus A CS is an originally neutral stimulus that gains the power to cause the response. Pavlov’s bell/tone began to produce the same response that the food once did.

17. Conditioned Response A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as the response originally produced by the UCS, we now call it a conditioned response.

18. Acquisition Acquisition: when a new behavior has been learned due to classical conditioning, the behavior is said to have been acquired. Multiple factors affect the speed and efficiency with which this happens: Repetition: how many times the subject is exposed to the paired CS and UCS Order and timing: most effective method is to present CS first and introduce UCS while CS is still present. Pavlov’s experiment is an example of delayed conditioning, because while the dogs did become conditioned to the sound of the bell, this did not happen immediately.

19. Acquisition Less effective methods of conditioning: Trace conditioning: CS is presented (bell), followed by a short break, followed by UCS (food). Simultaneous conditioning: CS (bell) and UCS (food) are presented simultaneously. Backward conditioning: UCS (food) is presented first, followed by the CS (bell). This is the least effective.

20. Extinction Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening) of a learned response, when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. In other words, the CS no longer elicits the CR. ◦To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the UCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the strength of the connection between the two stimuli. For example, once the dogs have been conditioned to salivate when they hear the bell, if one rings the bell repeatedly without feeding the dogs, the dogs will learn not to salivate when then hear the bell. ◦It is important to realize that extinction does not mean complete elimination of a response.

21. Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous recovery: sometimes, after a conditioned response has been made “extinct,” the response will briefly reappear when the subject is presented with the conditioned stimulus. ◦Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.

22. Classical Conditioning Strength of CR Pause Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR

23. Reinforcement Procedures What if we could not distinguish between stimuli that were similar? Generalization: the tendency for similar conditioned stimuli to elicit the conditioned response. Discrimination: the ability to tell the difference between similar stimuli. This is why you have different responses to a doorbell and a phone notification sound.

24. Aversive Conditioning Subjects can also be conditioned to have negative responses or to stop a behavior. This is known as aversive conditioning. John Watson and Rosalie Rayner: experiment with Little Albert Breaking a bad habit

25. Second-order or higher-order Conditioning Once a conditioned stimulus (such as the bell) elicits a conditioned response (salivation), it is possible to condition the same response to a new stimulus. This is known as second-order or higher-order conditioning. Example: once a has been conditioned to salivate when it hears a bell (which is first-order conditioning), the bell can be paired repeatedly with a light, conditioning the dog to salivate in response to the light alone. This is most successful soon after the acquisition of the first conditioned stimulus.

26. Biology and Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning only works when the desired behavior is a natural and involuntary. However, experiments have shown that it is not possible to use just any conditioned stimulus. Generally, naturally-related stimuli and responses are most effective. Examples: CSUCS (or US)Learned Response loud noiseshockfear loud noisenauseaNONE mozarella sticksshockNONE mozarella sticksnauseataste aversion to mozzarella sticks

29. Operant Conditioning

30. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit up or roll over. Why? Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more complex responses that we think of as voluntary.

31. Operant Conditioning An operant is an observable behavior that an organism uses to “operate” in the environment. Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences…that is, by the stimuli that follows the response.

32. B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner became famous for his ideas in behaviorism and his work with rats. Law of Effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into the organism.

33. B.F. Skinner and The Skinner Box

34. Reinforcement A reinforcer is a condition in which the presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs after a response (behavior) and strengthens that response, or makes it more likely to happen again in the future. Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again. ◦Ex: Getting paid for good grades

35. Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the probability of that response happening again. ◦Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache. ◦Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop. The word “positive” means add or apply; “negative” is used to mean subtract or remove.

36. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule under which all correct responses are reinforced. This is a useful tactic early in the learning process. It also helps when “shaping” new behavior. Shaping: A technique where new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.

37. Punishment A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus which occurs after a behavior, and decreases the probability it will occur again. Positive Punishment: An undesirable event that follows a behavior: getting spanked after telling a lie.

38. Punishment Negative Punishment: When a desirable event ends or is taken away after a behavior. ◦Example: getting grounded from your cell phone after failing your progress report. ◦Think of a time-out (taking away time from a fun activity with the hope that it will stop the unwanted behavior in the future.)

39. The consequence provides something ($, a spanking…) The consequence takes something away (removes headache, timeout) Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement The consequence makes the behavior more likely to happen in the future. Positive Punishment Negative Punishment The consequence makes the behavior less likely to happen in the future. Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix

40. Reinforcement vs. Punishment Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered consistently. Intermittent punishment is far less effective than punishment delivered after every undesired behavior. In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can have the effect of rewarding the behavior.

41. Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Punishment and negative reinforcement are used to produce opposite effects on behavior. ◦Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its probability of reoccurring. ◦Negative reinforcement always increases a behavior’s probability of happening in the future (by taking away an unwanted stimuli). Remember, “positive” means adding something and “negative means removing something.

42. Uses and Abuses of Punishment Punishment often produces an immediate change in behavior, which ironically reinforces the punisher. However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons: 1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappears when the threat of punishment is gone. 2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression 3. Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning. 4. Punishment is often applied unequally.

43. Making Punishment Work To make punishment work: ◦Punishment should be swift. ◦Punishment should be certain-every time. ◦Punishment should be limited in time and intensity. ◦Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the person. ◦Punishment should not give mixed messages. ◦The most effective punishment is often omission training-negative punishment.

44. Reinforcement Schedules Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced. Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way to maintain a desired behavior that has already been learned.

45. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement that rewards every correct response given. ◦Example: A vending machine. What are other examples?

46. Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a certain time interval. Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain number of responses. ◦There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement:  Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)  Variable Interval Schedule (VI)  Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)  Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

47. Reinforcement Schedules Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): ◦A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct response after some defined period of time. ◦Example: B.F. Skinner put rats in a box with a lever connected to a feeder. It only provided a reinforcement after 60 seconds. The rats quickly learned that it didn’t matter how early or often it pushed the lever, it had to wait a set amount of time. As the set amount of time came to an end, the rats became more active in hitting the lever.

48. Reinforcement Schedules Variable Interval Schedule (VI): A reinforcement system that rewards a behavior after an unpredictable amount of time. ◦Example: a slot machine

49. Reinforcement Schedules Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a defined number of correct answers. ◦Example: if you use your Club Card to buy 7 Starbucks coffees, you get the 8th one for free.

50. Reinforcement Schedules Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): A reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses. ◦The average number of button presses needed to receive a reward is fixed at five, but the first series of presses may be 2, the second 9, the third 3, the fourth 6. This is a ratio of 4 rewards to 20 presses, or 1:5.

51. Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval Number of responses 1000 750 500 250 0 10203040506070 Time (minutes) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Steady responding Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 80 Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules- Skinner’s laboratory pigeons produced these responses patterns to each of four reinforcement schedules For people, as for pigeons, research linked to number of responses (ratio) produces a higher response rate than reinforcement linked to time elapsed (interval).

52. Primary and Secondary reinforcement Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally reinforcing: food, warmth, water… Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is a reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in the long run: good grades.

53. Two Important Theories Token Economy: A therapeutic method based on operant conditioning that where individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as a secondary reinforcer. The tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards. Premack Principle: The idea that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less- preferred activity.

54. Operant and Classical Conditioning Classical ConditioningOperant Conditioning Behavior is controlled by the stimuli that precede the response (by the CS and the UCS). Behavior is controlled by consequences (rewards, punishments) that follow the response. No reward or punishment is involved (although pleasant and averse stimuli may be used). Often involves rewards (reinforcement) and punishments. Through conditioning, a new stimulus (CS) comes to produce the old (reflexive) behavior. Through conditioning, a new stimulus (reinforcer) produces a new behavior. Extinction is produced by withholding the UCS. Extinction is produced by withholding reinforcement. Learner is passive (acts reflexively): Responses are involuntary; behavior is elicited by stimulation. Learner is active: Responses are voluntary; behavior is emitted by the organism.

55. Biology and Operant Conditioning Research has shown that animals will resist (or not perform at all) behaviors that go against their natural inclinations. This is called instinctive drift. Examples: some animals that bury objects instinctively cannot be conditioned to place them into containers; herbivores cannot be conditioned to eat meat.

56. Cognitive Learning Radical behaviorists, such as Skinner, believe that learning occurs without thought. Cognitive theorists argue that even classical and operant conditioning have cognitive components. Pavlov’s model of classical conditioning is known as the contiguity model: the more times two stimuli are paired, the stronger the association of them will be. Hypothesis: if it takes 50 repetitions of paired bell and food to make a dog salivate when only the bell is rung, those 50 repetitions will work in both a dog that receives ONLY 50 repetitions of these two stimuli and another dog that receives 50 repetitions of these two stimuli interrupted by other unrelated stimuli. Robert Rescorla argued that these paired stimuli must appear together; they cannot be interrupted by other stimuli. This is known as the contingency model of classical conditioning. Hypothesis: a dog that receives the 50 paired repetitions will respond more strongly than a dog whose 50 paired repetitions are interrupted by other stimuli.

57. Cognitive Learning Observational learning: Learning in which new responses are acquired after other’s behavior and the consequences of their behavior are observed. Albert Bandura’s modeling theory of social learning Results in clown-pummeling

58. Cognitive Learning More observational learning: After observing adults seeming to enjoy punching, hitting and kicking an inflated doll called Bobo, the children later showed similar aggressive behavior toward the doll. Significantly, these children were more aggressive than those in a control condition who did not witness the adult’s violence.

59. Media and Violence Does violence on tv/movies/video games have an impact on the learning of children? Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that observing violence is associated with violent behavior. In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers of media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when they subsequently observe violent acts-a condition known as psychic numbing.

60. Latent Learning In a similar study, rats were allowed to wander around a maze, without reinforcements, for several hours. It formerly was thought that reinforcements were essential for learning. However, when food was introduced as a reward for completing the maze, the rats were able to negotiate the maze more quickly than rats that had never seen the maze before. ◦Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.

61. Latent Learning When rats were put into a maze with multiple routes to the reinforcer, the rats would repeatedly attempt the shortest route. If their preferred route was blocked, they would chose the next shortest route to the reward. Tolman theorized that the rats had developed cognitive maps: mental representations of a place or sequence.

62. Latent Learning

63. Abstract Learning Humans (and some other animals, depending upon the complexity of the brain) have the ability to understand concepts that are more complex than simple action/reward sequences. For example, pigeons that have been conditioned to associate a reward with a picture of a square, and given a choice of two pictures of shapes, can select the same shape repeatedly when a reward is involved (or to select the shape that is NOT a square if that is the condition for being rewarded). This type of learning is called abstract learning.

64. A Fourth Type of Learning Sometimes we have “flashes of insight” when dealing with a problem where we have been experiencing trial and error. This type of learning is called insight learning, which is explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone.

65. Wolfgang Köhler and Sultan Wolfgang Köhler believed that chimps could solve complex problems by combining simpler behaviors they had previously learned separately. Köhler taught Sultan the chimp how to stack boxes to obtain bananas that were over his head and how to use a stick to obtain something that was out of his reach. He taught Sultan these skills in separate situations.

66. Sultan’s Situation When Sultan was put in a situation where the bananas were still out of his reach after stacking the boxes, Sultan became frustrated. He threw the stick and kicked the wall before sitting down. Suddenly, he jumped up and dragged the boxes and stick under the bananas. He then climbed up the boxes and whacked the fruit down with the stick. This suggested to Köhler that the animals were not mindlessly using conditioned behavior, but were learning by reorganizing their perceptions of problems.

67. Sultan the Chimp