2. Representations could be: Linguistic Figurative Theoretical

3. Kinds of Representations Mimetic Metonymic (part for the whole)

4. The Crisis of Representation A critique of Western thought Orientalism, Edward Said (1977)

5. System of Representation Predicated on: Rhetorical devices ---colonialism as a rhetorical exercise in power ---Imperialism: the history of the Orient

6. Anthropological contributions to the Western Mentality Literary texts: objectification Image: the exotic Theories: development, evolution

7. Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (1986) Clifford and Marcus Crisis of representation (in anthropology)has brought about a challenge to anthop authority 2: the process of representation is now: contingent, historical and contestable

8. Anthropological Responses Reflexivity --acknowledgment of the role of subjectivity Experimental strategies --change forms (monovocal to polyvocal) Recognition of global and economic realities --colonialism --neo-colonialism, etc.

9. After Writing Culture…(1997) James, Hockey and Dawson Help us --inform the practice --look at new ways (styles) --pay close attention (epistemology)

10. Today’s Dilemmas The humanist nature of representational practices The difficulty of uncovering whose representations and by whom Problem of form Politics and ethics of representations

11. Van Maanen: Tales of the Field (1988) Realist forms: dispassionate third person, objective, finding truth Confessional forms: reflexive nature of ethnography Impressionist forms: capturing special moment

12. Realist Ethnographies (conventions) Experiential authority-- Ethnographic form-- One point of view--, Interpretive omnipotence--

13. Interpretive Anthropology Science and Literature start to coexist Changing of mentality Redressing of ethnocentric past

14. Writing … not only as a method influenced by politics, intentionality, positionality,

15. It draws attention two aspects of anthropology to the historical predicaments of ethnography--tied to a Western mentality the fact that ethnography is interpretation, invention and not an unbiased, totally objective representation of a culture--literary processes affects: 1. cultural phenomena 2. audience

16. Literary processes metaphor, figuration, narrative style

17. Ethnographic writing (art) is characterized in at least six ways contextually rhetorically institutionally generically politically historically

18. J.F Lyotard “The Postmodern Condition” (1977) Attacked the totalizing notion in modernism Representing wholeness, truth ness “Writing Culture” Clifford and Marcus (1986) “Anthropology as a Cultural Critique” Marcus and Fisher (1986). Stephen Tyler “Post-modern Ethnography: From Document of the Occult to Occult Document (1986)

19. Stephen Tyler Evocation rather than representation The split between orality and literacy One perspective (literacy) Versus polyvocal present of multi realities (orality). Object (anthropologist) with subject (the Other)

20. FOUR MAJOR CONSEQUENCES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE POSTMODERN TURN 1. The subject matter is changing 2. The medium of anthropology is no longer predominant. 3. The methods of anthropology are changing. 4. The intention of anthropology has been challenged

21. Postmodernist techniques and rhetorical styles: Paradox ambiguity

22. The Nuer By Hillary Harris and Robert Garner It portrays the Nuer, group of people who live along the Nile river in Ethiopia. 1970

23. Evocative, Allegorical Little description Attain more than one event Imagination: cultural norm --Nuer life revolving around cattle Recognize a common experience

24. I lay there and felt the pains as they came, over and over again. Then I felt something wet, the beginning of childbirth. I thought, “Eh hey, maybe it is the child.” I got up, took a blanket and covered Tashay with it; he was still sleeping. Then I took another blanket…and I left. Was I not the only one? The only other woman was Tashay’s grandmother, and she was sleep in her hut. So, just as I was, I left. I walked a short distance from the village and sat down beside a tree… After she was born, I sat there; I did not know what to do. I had no sense…Then I thought, “A big thing like that? How could it possibly have come out from my genitals?” (In “On Ethnographic Allegory,” Clifford 1986, 99).

25. Objectivity and Subjectivity Geertz (1980) Hermeneutic: Pertaining to interpretation Exegesis: Critical interpretation

26. Reflective Vs. reflexive Reflective: thinking about ourselves but without awareness of the implications of our action Reflexive:to be aware of ourselves and aware of our actions

27. Awareness of (communicative) production Producer:(ethnographer) process: shaping, encoding of the message product: the text, what the audience receives

28. Reflexivity and anthropology to examine a field problem to examine anthropology itself to look at anthropology as a tool for gathering data to publicly examine the anthropologist's response to the field situation

29. Problem the more the anthrop attempts to fulfill his scientific obligation to report on methods, the more he must acknowledge his own behaviour and the persona as a data Statements on the method them appear to be more personal, subjective, biased,

30. Four factors for the emergence of reflexivity in Anthropology (Nash and Wintrob, 1972) increase personal involvement of ethnographers with their subjects the democratization of anthropology (more people becoming anthrop, other classes, other cultures) multiple fields studies of the same culture independence of native peoples

31. What is the relationship between feminism and anthropology? Ignorance of contribution of women in the discipline Anthropological genealogies(male oriented)) Their contribution to reflexivity (ignored or appropriated)

32. Women and reflexivity Powdermaker (1966) Mead (1977) Personal experience (autobiography)

33. The Challenges from without Minorities Women Decentred authority Forced to become reflexive

34. The reflexive turn Crack in the Mirror by Myerhoff and Ruby 1982) to examine a field problem to examine anthropology itself to look at anthropology as a tool for gathering data to publicly examine the anthropologist's response to the field situation

35. Three layers Bias imported by the male ethnographer The bias inherent in the society studied The bias inherent in Western culture

36. Deconstruction of gender symbolism and sexual stereotypes Men associated with culture and women with nature; physiology Women social roles; domestic domains Concept of pollution

37. Deconstructing the structure of male bias by Focusing on women Building data: about women by women Reworking and redefining anthropological theory

38. Ardener (1975) and the theory of “Muted Groups” control over modes of expression Male dominated structures --ways of communicating (linguistic concepts) --ways of writing (mankind for humankind) --dominant ideology --different world views

39. Problems with the assumption of a privileged status (women studying women) Ghettoization of feminist anthropology --too specialized --image problem The assumption of a universal category of “women” --not the same in all cultures Perception of ethnocentrism --a bias in favor of one culture ( that of the woman anthrop)

40. Overview of Ethnographic fieldwork: History of fieldwork in anthropology 1. Participant observation: A. Explicit: Recorded or formal B. Tacit: personal experience personal belief

41. We all are participant observers of culture. Anthropologists: 1. Systematic use of data A. Intentionality a. Theoretical inquiry

42. The Ethnographic experience cannot be taken at face value but must be studied in its sensational depth (Hastrup and Hervik 1994: 224). 1. Non-verbal knowledge 2. Embodied knowledge 3. Learning by doing and experiencing, comparing Through particular procedures: recording observations

43. Origins of Participant Observation Armchair Anthropologists.1. no clear methodology 2. detachment from subjects Malinowski 1. emphasis on everyday interaction 2. established relationship between theory and method

44. Malinowski’s three standard themes 1. Culture and context 2. Importance on Etic approach 3. Cultural particularism

45. First: Culture and context integration Aspects of culture cannot be study in isolation Put into proper context: local Ethnographer needs to be present

46. Two: etic approach Scientifically verification of informal descriptions Emic Approach: local-oriented approach to anthropological investigations. Etic Approach: Scientific-oriented approach to anthropological investigations.

47. Third: cultural particularism When one put the “primitive’ action into its proper context (cultural particularism) one would understand that his action is reasonable. Against racism and ethnocentrism

48. Key elements of the method of participant observation 1. Living in the context for an extended period of time 2. Learning and using local languages and dialect 3. Actively participating in a wide range of daily routines and extraordinary activities with people in that context. 4. Using everyday conversations as interview techniques 5. Informally observing during leisure activities) 6. Recording observations in the field notes 7. Using both tacit and explicit information in analysis and writing

49. Overview of field research Beginning the fieldwork process: Selection of project, funding Preparing for the field Working in the Field: Site selection, gaining rapport Exchanges and gift giving, factors influencing fieldwork, culture shock Fieldwork techniques: theoretical considerations, interviews and questionnaires Recording Culture: f ield notes, tape recording, photography, videos and films Data analysis: analysing data, writing process

50. Cultural Appropriation Postcolonial critique of representation: --orientalism, feminist anthropology, postmodernism, etc. Peoples efforts towards self-determination --Third World, Fourth World

51. Appropriation: To take possession of another's material, often without permission, reusing it in a context which differs from its original context, most often in order to examine issues concerning originality or to reveal meaning not previously seen in the original. This is far more aggressive than allusion or quotation; it is not the same as plagiarism however. (Art Dictionary)

52. Cultural Appropriation Cultural appropriation is the theft of rituals, aesthetic standards and behavior from one culture by another, generally by a "modern" culture from a "primitive" culture — often this involves the conversion of religion and spirituality into "meaningless" pop-culture. Example; Katsinasbeings

53. Appropriation Multidirectional A political action; Dominant culture takes from subordinate one Cultural assimilation: Globalization of information

54. If political one should consider: 1. Impact on subordinate group:---the role of cultural representations in a culture 2. Wo benefits (financially) from appropriation?-- power relations, economic, and other advantages 3. Laws are inadequate to protect subordinate groups:--laws need to be changed to protect subordinate groups from cultural appropriation

55. Questions in anthropology How is cultural appropriation related to ethnographic inquiry? Who owns ethnographic information? Who should have the rightful claim to ethnographic materials? Can anthropological cultural representation be considered cultural appropriation? Why?

56. Repatriation --Sharing ethnographic materials with subjects --Sending ethnographic information back to the community studied

57. Influenced by two forces The questioning of cultural representation by Indigenous peoples--Whose interests are represented Growing ethical and political concerns in anthropology--correct some eurocentric attitudes of the past (colonialism and cultural appropriation)

58. Major developments contributing to its reversal: Indigenous resistance --interest groups -- intellectual property, Indigenous nationalism Changing attitudes in institutions and government agencies -- New rules and ethical guidelines, AAA changing rules, strict rules, more sensitivity towards other cultures

59. Conundrum for anthropologists: No longer an unquestionable source of academic authority What does repatriation imply?

60. Factors Underpinning the Repatriation Debate Legacy of past and present exploitation is now acknowledged Indigenous peoples organization Efforts by governments and academic to correct the mistakes of the past on the issue

61. The Act of Repatriation Should Make Sure that: Information should not harm either the community or the informants It should not harm the interest of academic research

62. Stephen Glazier (1993) “Responding To The Anthropologist: When The Spiritual Baptists of Trinidad Read What I Write About Them” --Ethnographic materials should be viewed as part of a continuous process

63. The Problems with Repatriation Opens some possibilities but also closes other avenues for research Promotes acceptance at the same time can fuel misunderstandings Can be used by some groups against other groups in the community Sometimes it does not fulfill subjects expectations

64. Study Questions Why do we represent certain things in a culture and avoid others? What are the criteria we use to select some aspects of a culture and ignore others? How do we select and why? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a feminist anthropology in the production and representation f ethnographic knowledge? What are the technical, ethical and political consequences of repatriation for ethnographers and subjects? Do the potential problems of repatriation (for ethnographers and subjects) outweigh the benefits of cultural appropriation?