2. Ways of Knowing Ethnographies have always been written in the context of historical changes: the formation of state systems and the evolution of a world political economy (Marcus 1986: 165)

3. Representation: the presentation of something not present.

4. Representations could be: Linguistic Figurative Theoretical

5. Kinds of Representations Similar Metonymic (part for the whole)

6. The Crisis of Representation A critique of Western thought

7. Orientalism, Edward Said (1977) A critique of the Western system of representation

8. Orientalism signifies a system of representations framed by political forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and Western empire. The Orient exists for the West, and is constructed by and in relation to the West. It is a mirror image of what is inferior and alien ("Other") to the West.

9. System of Representation Predicated on: Rhetorical devices ---Through colonialism as a rhetorical exercise in power ---Through imperialism: the history of the Orient

10. Anthropological contributions to the Western Mentality Literary texts: objectification Image: the exotic Theories: development, evolution

11. Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Clifford and Marcus 1986) 1.Epistemological crisis (new epistemological challenges) 2. Representation contestations (on a number of grounds)

12. Anthropological Responses Reflexivity: acknowledgment of the role of subjectivity Experimental strategies: changing of forms (monovocal to polyvocal) Recognition of global and economic realities: colonialism, racism, neo- colonialism, etc.

13. After Writing Culture…(James, Hockey and Dawson 1997) Help us --inform the practice --look at new ways (styles) --pay close attention (epistemology) --consider how reflexivity can be an important tool in the ethnographic process

14. Today’s Dilemmas The humanistic nature of representational practices puts into question the validity of research. The difficulty of uncovering whose representations and by whom. Problem of form: difference of forms The politics and ethics issues and dilemas in representations.

15. The humanist nature of representational practices

16. The difficulty of uncovering whose representations and by whom are they.

17. Problems of form

18. Politics and ethics of representations

19. Positivism A doctrine which claims that social life should be understood and analyzed in the same way that scientists study the 'natural world'. Underpinning this philosophy is the notion that phenomena exist in causal relationships and these can be empirically observed, tested and measured. [Tony Bilton et al, 1996:666]

20. Realist Ethnographies (characteristics) Single authorship Exclusion of personal experiences Push for authenticity

21. Conventions of Realist Ethn Based on experiential authority -

22. Particular style (ethnographic form) “Early in the morning each village almost literally explodes. Asak and odok come down and the village reveals itself for what it is, a conglomeration of individuals of all ages, each going his own way in search of food and water, like a plague of locusts spreading over the land” (Turnbull, The Mountain People, 1971).

23. Third convention: Absence of native point of view Monovocality Closely edited quotations Verbatim transcriptions

24. Interpretive Omnipotence No longer a marginal, or occulted, dimension, writing has emerged as central to what anthropologist do both in the field and thereafter. The fact that it has not until recently been portrayed or seriously discussed reflects the persistence of an ideology claiming transparency of representation and immediacy of experience (Clifford, 1986: 2).

25. It draws attention two aspects of anthropology to the historical predicaments of ethnography the fact that ethnography is interpretation, invention and not an unbiased, totally objective representation of a culture

26. Ethnography is interpretation, invention and not an unbiased, totally objective representation of a culture: literary power literary processes affects: 1. cultural phenomena 2. audience

27. Literary processes metaphor, figuration, narrative style

28. Ethnographic writing (art) is characterized in at least six ways contextually )it draws from a creates a meaningful cultural milieu) rhetorically (it uses and is used by expressive conventions) institutionally (one writes within and against specific traditions, disciplines, audiences) ) (Mead) generically (it has its own characteristics) usually distinguished from a novel, travel writing, journalism) politically (the ethnography has the authority to represent, cultural realities are unequally shared and are contested) historically (all conventions are changing)

29. Discussion questions Why do we represent certain things in culture and avoid others?

30. What are the criteria we use to select some aspects of a culture and ignore others?

31. How do we select and why?