1. Reporting your Results Mariana Gerber NMMU

2. AGENDA Writing a Report –Types of Reports –Planning your Reports –Report Structure –Line of flow (Linking) –Language –Quality Control Index Cards

3. Introduction You collected all your information, done your experiments, reached your conclusions - what now? You want to share your knowledge with the world. You are ready to start writing a report.

4. Types of Reports Thesis (tesis) - a report towards a complete fulfillment of a Doctors qualification Dissertation (verhandeling) - a report towards a complete fulfillment of a Masters qualification Treatise (skripsie) - a report towards the partial fulfillment of a Masters qualification Journal paper - a report intended to be published in a subject journal Conference paper - a report to be presented at a conference or workshop and to be included in the conference proceedings

5. Planning of your Report The structure or layout of your report may change over your period of study Despite this, it is important to plan the structure of your report In most cases, a report has a fairly straight forward structure, for all types of reports. Only the volume and detail differ A typical layout may be as follows

6. Report Structure Chapter 1- Introduction Start by describing the problem, the objectives, the approach to be followed and an overview of the remainder of the report Explicitly list issues that do not form part of this report

7. Report Structure Description / Literature Chapters Next few chapters provide the reader with background information For example: one chapter might deal with data communication, a next with the Internet and a next one with all its security problems This is used to set the scene for later chapters Idea is to establish a common frame of reference with all your readers Also to refer them to additional sources where more background information can be obtained

8. Report Structure Solution Chapters Following the description chapters, you can tell the readers about your own work You ‘lived’ with this study for days, weeks, months or even years and everything seems obvious to you This is not often the case with the readers who are confronted with these terms and issues for the first time Even experts in the field may find it difficult to follow Make sure you ‘enter’ this part of your report slowly, carefully and clearly

9. Report Structure Solution Chapters (continue) Different ways of entering the ‘meat’ of the report slowly:  start with a simple ‘distilled’ version  use an Overview Chapter  make use of an everyday example, and use it right through Introduce the topic gently and build on it progressively Keep referring back to previously addressed issues to ensure that everything stay in context It is important that a single line of flow runs through the whole report

10. Report Structure Conclusion Chapter Usually states the problem again, provides a brief overview of the report and clearly and concisely list the conclusions drawn and solutions developed

11. Report Structure Bibliography (Reference List) Follows Conclusion Chapter All references used in the report must be listed in the bibliography No references to be included if not referred to in report

12. Report Structure Appendices Follows Bibliography Relevant information are included in Appendices if it is not required for the line of flow Additional information that might be of interest to some readers

13. Report Structure Cover page, Abstract and Table of Contents A Cover page is usually required in a specific format Many reports require an abstract. It briefly describes the problem, summarizes the main argument and lists the major conclusions. A Table of Contents is normally required by most larger reports

14. Report Structure In Summary Thus, Chapter 1 should position the reader in what is the problem, a possible solution (objectives), the approach that will be followed to do the study and a layout of what will follow. The Description Chapters will ensure that the reader has got a common frame of reference from where the solution can be discussed. The Solution Chapters will describe your work. Ensure that ‘your work’ is slowly and carefully linked to the Description Chapters and ensure that a common line runs through all Solution Chapters.

15. Planning of your Report Important about Planning the Structure Ensure that you have conveyed your structure explicitly to the reader Keep reminding your reader about the structure (and thus maintain the line of flow) as you progress through the report This can be done by using the Introduction and Conclusion sections of each chapter effectively The Introduction to each chapter should ‘place’ the contents of that chapter in the bigger context The Introduction should clearly spell out what will follow in this chapter and what relevance it has with the previous chapter of rest of report The Conclusion should reiterate this and ‘link’ it to the next chapter and rest of report

16. Planning of your Report Journal and Conference Papers Exactly the same approach is followed Sections are used in place of chapters and subsections in place of sections Background or description sections are normally kept as short as possible Cover page and table of contents are usually omitted

17. CHAPTER HEADING 2.1Section Heading (Introduction) Introduce the broad topic; State why the topic is important and how it relates to the previous topic (chapter); Give an overview of the structure of the chapter 2.2 Section Heading 2.3 Section Heading 2.3.1 Sub-section Heading 2.3.2 Sub-section Heading 2.4 Section Heading 2.x Section Heading (Conclusion) Restate the main idea Provide a brief overview of the report Clearly and concisely list the conclusions drawn Explain what can be expected in next chapter and how it relates to this chapter Line-of-flow (Linking)

18. Language Correct language usage is of utmost importance Bad language distract from the message you want to bring across Often difficult to learn scientific (“technical“) writing skills and concentrate on a second language Potential language problems occur at; word, sentence, paragraph, subsection, section and chapter levels Try to avoid first person as far as possible

19. Language Words Spell-checkers are not foolproof, proofreading still required Reports tend to be formal; “do not” rather than “don’t”, “it is” rather than “it’s”, “let us” rather than “let’s”, etc. Some words are inherently informal; “contraption” or “gadget” can be replaced by “device” or “mechanism” Do not use complicated words if a simple word might be better understood Use a thesaurus and dictionary to find alternative words

20. Language Sentences Proofread your work to make sure that your sentences are correct –If you cannot do it, find somebody that can do it Hints on writing sentences:  no verb, no sentence!  keep the sentences simple  keep the sentences as short as possible Example: –If you are inclined to say that A happens because B has happened. Rather say: –B happened. Because of this A has happened. Or, –A has happened. The reason for this is that B happened.

21. Language Sentences (continue) Object verb subject. Subject in one sentence becomes the object of the next sentence..

22. Language Sentences Sentences must be related to one another (linked or hooked) Use adverbs such as ‘however’ or ‘indeed’ to link sentences –Such words link sentences together and make it easier for readers to follow the line of flow –These words link to the previous sentence The word “however” alerts the reader that some contrast will link this sentence with a previous one Words like “indeed” or “similarly” indicates that the current sentence supports previous sentences

23. Language Paragraphs Paragraphs are units of meaning, addressing a single issue Ideally, the first sentence in the paragraph should introduce the issues to be discussed in the paragraph Reading only the first sentence of all paragraphs should provide the general drift of the message

24. Language Paragraphs (continue) Paragraphs should be linked to one another ensuring the flow from one paragraph to the next Example: –One paragraph starts with: “Determine if any portions are prescribed and follow those prescriptions carefully.....” –This might not link clearly to the previous paragraph. Rather start the paragraph with: “Using the right language and using the language right have now been discussed, therefore it is time to look at formal requirements. Determine if any portions are prescribed and follow those prescriptions carefully.....”

25. Language Paragraphs (continue) It is always helpful to give the reader a road map of what will follow and then provide the readers with some markers where they are currently. Example: –The paragraph can start with: “Four criteria will be discussed to....” or “A number of issues need to be discussed.....” –Then provide some markers, like: “The second criterium is....” or “The final issue......”

26. Language Sections Similar to paragraphs, explicitly relate the section to the previous section in the beginning of the section and to the next section, at the end of the section The beginning of the section must spell out what is to be expected in the section - a road map The section can be concluded with something like: “This section considered X. The next section considers Y as an alternative to X” Sections (and subsections) normally have headings, paragraphs not

27. Language Sections (continue) Headings must be explanatory, but not act as an introduction to section Example: –If the heading is, “Object-orientation”, the first sentence can be, “This section discusses object-orientation.....” –The name of the section must not be, “A discussion of Object- orientation” If a section is too long, it can be divided into subsections Sections and subsections are normally numbered Subsections must be linked to one another, as well as to the section in which it appears

28. Line-of-flow (Linking) Section 1 –Is this important? –Why was this introduced –Where does it fit in? –What? –State the rest to follow (in next section) LINK FORWARD Section 2 LINK BACKWARD –Why was previous section important? –How does it link to next section?

29. Quality Control How do you know your report is good enough? Read it, reread it and read it again Read it again on another day, things will be different Do not expect your supervisor / study leader to correct spelling and grammar Too many mistakes lead to a start / stop situation and distracts from following the message It is your responsibility to address the language problems first

30. Quality Control To test the “Line of Flow” of the paper try the following:  If only the Introduction chapter/section and Conclusion chapter/section are read, the reader should have a clear idea what the paper is all about and what the final conclusion of the report is.  If the first and last paragraphs of each section is also read, it should make perfect sense to the reader and a little more detail of how the conclusion is reached will be known.  Obviously, if the whole report is read, full explanatory details will be available.

31. Index Cards SourceSpecific Area General Area ITEM quote, data, idea, method, definition of terms, etc. Writing order 1 2 5 34

32. Editorial Preparation Format Requirements & Title Page

33. Editorial Preparation Format Requirements –Font size: 12 –Alignment: Justified –Line spacing: 1.5 –Print on one side of A4-format paper

34. THE TITLE WOULD BE PLACED HERE IN A CHOSEN FONT TO ACCOMMODATE ITS LENGTH By Full Name of the Candidate Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Baccalaureus Technologiae in Information Technology in the Faculty of Engineering, the Built Environment and Information Technology at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University October 2010 Promoter/Supervisor: Prof MY Supervisor Co-Promoter/Co-Supervisor: Dr MY Co

35. Summary Scientific (“technical”) writing is skill It needs practice QUESTIONS?