1. MEMORY PROF ELHAM Aljammas May 2015 L16 © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E

2. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Memory Three-Stage Model of Memory Forgetting and Memory Problems with Memory Memory Improvement

3. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Memory Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory) Memory is rarely perfect –Forgetting refers to memory failure

4. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory –Limited capacity (7 items) –Duration is about 30 seconds Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity and long duration

5. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Overview of Memory Model

6. Working Memory Model

7. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E

8. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E

9. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E

10. Memory: Brain Structures

11. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Where Are Memories Located? Memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain--not just the cortex.

12. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E

13. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories Decay Interference Motivated Forgetting Encoding Failure Retrieval Failure

14. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued) 1. Decay Theory: memory degrades with time 2. Interference Theory: one memory competes (interferes) with another –Retroactive Interference (new information interferes with old) –Proactive Interference (old information interferes with new)

15. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) 3. Motivated Forgetting: motivation to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories 4. Encoding Failure: information in STM is not encoded in LTM 5. Retrieval Failure: memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon) Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)

16. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Types of Long-Term Memories

17. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Long-Term Memory Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning –REM sleep may play a key role in categorizing new items within LTM –Memories retrieved from LTM are not an exact replica of the original event –Memories are reconstructed and can be altered during the retrieval process

18. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Varieties of LTM Psychologists distinguish between two types of LTM –Semantic memory refers to factual information (What is the capital of Georgia?) –Episodic memory refers to autobiographical information as to where and when an event happened “I remember visiting the capital of of Georgia”

19. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Overview of LTM

20. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Organization of LTM Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item –Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient –Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

21. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Memory Measures Recognition is when a specific cue (face or name) is matched against LTM Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory E.g. define the term “statistical significance” Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. Memory is evident in savings of time to relearn the second time versus the first

22. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Forgetting Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall

23. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Theories of Forgetting Interference theory argues that information competes for retrieval Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information Decay theory: memory trace fades with time Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss) Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

24. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Interference and Memory

25. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Amnesia Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma –Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma –Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma Point of Trauma Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia

26. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Anatomy of Memory Bilateral damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia (Patient H.M.)

27. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Issues in Memory Memory recall may involve reconstruction and thus may not be accurate Reasons for inaccuracy of memory: –Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event) –Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten –Misinformation effect: we incorporate outside information into our own memories

28. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued) Eight Tips for Memory Improvement: 1. Pay attention and reduce interference 2. Use rehearsal techniques 3. Organization 4. Counteract serial position effect 5. Time management

29. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) 6. Use encoding specificity principle 7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning 8. Use mnemonic devices (e.g., method of loci, peg-word, substitute word, word associations) Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)

30. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Memory Strategies Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing information –Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a building –Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”) –Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learned Other strategies for improving memory: –Pay attention and avoid interference –Use rehearsal techniques –Improve the organization of your memory –Manage your time

31. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 6E Copyright Copyright 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner.