1. Non-violent resistance in Burma Spring 1988 – September 1988

2. Background Post-independence Burmese democracy crushed by a military coup d'état in 1962. Social and economic decline ‘minimal manpower and maximum firepower’ Spontaneous student protests to stop police brutality became nationwide protest.

3. The beginning of widespread protest: Throughout June there were ongoing protests June 21 st – a march was attacked by riot police, demonstrators fought back. In July protests spread and students gained concessions Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) held congress General Ne Win resigned National referendum proposed Congress rejected plans for referendum and named Sein Lwin new party chairman.

4. August 8 – General Strike involving hundreds of thousands of people. August 12 – Sein Linn resigned. August 22 – General Strike. August 24 – half a million people participating in daily protests in Rangoon. August 31 – thousands of people resigned from BSPP. September 9 - Air Force troops joined marchers in Rangoon. September 11 – general elections are announced.

5. Failure September 18 – SLORC coup d'état Martial law declared, curfew implemented. Army responsible for thousands of deaths and arrests. Fair elections were promised within 2 years. September 24 – NLD formed under leadership of Aung San Suu Kyi.

6. 1990 elections Tight restrictions on election campaigns. Elections took place in May 1990 and the NLD won 80% of seats. SLORC refused to acknowledge results. July 1990 – Aung San Suu Kyi placed under house arrest.

7. Seminar Q.1 - In Burma, what were the main strategies of protest deployed against the regime in 1988? Protest and persuasion – rallies and protests Non-co-operation – strikes, burn-ins, refusal by monks to perform services Creative non-violent intervention – parallel government, Citizens Committees, alternative press.

8. Q.2 - What was the role of Buddhist monks? Burma’s Buddhist monks played an important supervisory role. Led local committees. Took charge of security during strikes. Provided spiritual support for protesters. Staged a military boycott in August 1990

9. Q.3 Why was the military junta in Burma able to ignore the adverse election results of 1990 with impunity? General Saw Maung used delaying tactics. Most of the opposition leaders were in prison or under house arrest. Many activists joined guerrilla forces. Culture of fear. Burmese democratic parties were wreaked with factionalism and poorly organised. ‘People might have had strong determination about ’88, but in reality, the stomach also plays an important part. So, many people retreated’. – NLD member

10. Q.4 - To what extent was the fact the movement was student-led a weakness? Poor organisation Difficult to harbour support among wider population Lack of experience Lack of charismatic leader

11. Q. 5 - Does the example of Burma reveal certain limits to theorizations by Gene Sharp and others about the efficacy of nonviolent resistance? Non-violence in Burma failed as a result of both internal and external factors. INTERNAL: Students Monks ‘Psyche of the resister’ EXTERNAL: Ruthlessness of army Lack of international support

12. Bibliography Fink, Christina, Living Silence: Burma Under Military Rule (London, 2001) Guyot, James, ‘Myanmar in 1990: The Unconsummated Elections’, Asian Survey, 31, 1991 Lintner, Bertil, Outrage: Burma’s Struggle for Democracy (London, 1990) Schock, Kurt, Unarmed Insurrections: People Power Movements in Non-democracies (Minnesota, 2005) Sharp, Gene, Waging Non-violent Struggle: 20 th Century Practise and 21 st Century Potential (Boston, 2005) Summy, Ralph, ‘Nonviolence and the Case of the Extremely Ruthless Opponent’, Global Change, Peace and Security, 6