2. HUMAN BIOLOGY

3. WHY? To learn about ourselves, our culture To learn the relationship between form & function Study the parts to understand the whole body To become familiar with terminology that describes the structures & processes associated with the human body

4. CULTURE & the reasons for it CULTURE = Social influences human behavior Why is culture important? To learn from the experiences of others Its carried on through language & “big brains” Its faster acting & easier to observe than the evolution of anatomy & physiology

5. WHAT IS BIOLOGY? BiologyBiology comes from the Greek BiosBios = life LogosLogos = to study Biology is the study of life!

6. What Is the Meaning Of Life? Top 7 ways to tell the living from the nonliving 1 Cellular Organization 2 Reproduction 3 Metabolism 4 Homeostasis 5 Heredity 6 Responsiveness 7 Able to Grow & Develop

7. If It Does NOT meet ALL 7… ITS NOT ALIVE!

8. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION All living things are made up of 1 or more cells Cells = smallest unit capable of all life functions

9. REPRODUCTION How all life forms make more of their own kind from 1 generation to the next All living things (ORGANISMS) can reproduce

10. METABOLISM Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism Chemistry is necessary for life! Balancing those chemical reactions = HOMEOSTASIS

11. HOMEOSTASIS The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment (at all levels of body organization) despite changes in the outside environment

12. EXAMPLES of HOMEOSTASIS Body temperature Water-mineral balance Blood pressure Sleep-wake cycle Blood pH Any physiological process with a negative-feedback system of control

13. Why Is Homeostasis Such A Big Deal? Physiological processes can function only under a limited range of conditions “Goldilocks” factor EX--- Body temperature 98.6º F or 37º C

14. HEREDITY All organisms pass on traits from parent to offspring GENES = sets of inherited instructions for making proteins MUTATION = any change in a gene (DNA) DNA = code on genes for making proteins

15. RESPONSIVENESS (irritability) 1 Detect information about the environment 2 Process this information 3 Respond appropriately

16. GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT GROWTH = replace worn out cells; increase in size DEVELOPMENT = advance, fulfill with time; mature

17. METABOLISM Sum of all chemical reactions within living cells = catabolism  anabolism Catabolism = break down (digest food into protein) Anabolism = build up (rearrange proteins into new cells)

18. CELLS Functional & structural building block of life This makes them the SMALLEST LIVING THINGS!

19. CELLS HAVE 3 THINGS IN ALL COMMON Made of Cytoplasm + Nucleus enclosed by a Cell Membrane 1.Cytoplasm = fluid in a cell 2.Nucleus = cell’s control center, “brain” 3.Cell Membrane = outermost part of a cell, the cell’s “skin”

20. The Order of Perspectives on Human Biology (HB) 1 Atoms 2 Molecules 3 Organelles 4 Cells 5 Tissues 6 Organs 7 Organ systems 8 **Organisms—YOU! 9 Populations 10 Ecosystem 11 Biosphere small big

21. The Order of Perspectives on Human Biology (HB) 1 Atoms 2 Molecules 3 Organelles ---------------------------- 4 Cells ----------------------------------- 5 Tissues 6 Organs 7 Organ systems 8 **Organisms—YOU! 9 Populations 10 Ecosystem 11 Biosphere NOTALIVE! ITS VERY ALIVE!

22. HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERYWHERE! Internet Magazines TV News Newspapers Books

23. HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERDAY INVOLVING EVERYONE! Cloning Human Genome Project (HUGO) Curing AIDS Saving the rainforest Genetic engineering to cure genetic diseases EX- MS, CF, Dyslexia, Diabetes, Some cancers

24. HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERBODY! In 1999, world population exceeded 6 billion! Not enough space, food, energy, & resources for everyone is a very SERIOUS problem.

25. RAINFORESTS & HUMANS Destroying rainforests to make space to live affects plants & animals Half of the world’s species live in the rainforests Tropical rainforests are currently being destroyed at a rate greater than 1 acre/ second! At this rate, the last tree will fall by 2050!

26. RAINFORESTS & HUMANS This will destroy over 1 million species, making it the greatest extinction since the dinosaurs of 65 million years ago! Who knows what potential medicines, foods, plastics, and genetic material we are losing? Biologists seek balance between the need for land & protecting ALL life.

27. MORE PEOPLE MEANS MORE FOOD IS NEEDED Biologists seek new crops to grow more efficiently in tropical soils & without too much fertilizer or pesticides Genetic engineers place plant genes into other plants to form new crops that are germs & insect resistant AND bear fruit many times a year! EX- New crops are frost resistant due to inserted genes Insect resistant crops decrease the amount of bug spray used (saves $)

28. HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK CURES AIDS Cancer CF (cystic fibrosis) MS (multiple sclerosis) MD (muscular dystrophy) Diabetes Heart Problems (cardiopathies) Many others

29. AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Since 1981 (when 1 st recognized) 50 million people have been infected 14 million already dead, 2 million die per year Caused by HIV = Human Immunodeficiency Virus It is an STD, also spread by other body fluids NOT including urine (pee), feces (poop) & sweat.

30. HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK CURES Yes, AIDS-like diseases also affect other animals FIV = Feline Immunodeficiency Virus FIV ONLY affects cats It is highly contagious among cats FIV is curable Humans do not catch it. Some forms of HIV can spread to other primates (chimps, monkeys, bonobos, etc.)

31. CANCER Cellular growth disorder When cells do not know when to stop reproducing Can be prematurely set off by chemicals (esp. in tobacco) Many human cancers are know curable, thanks to HUGO (HUman GenOme project) We will see this in detail in later chapters

32. CF Cystic Fibrosis Fatal disorder in which abnormally thick mucus builds up in many organs, esp. the lungs Too much mucus, not enough breathing Caused by a defective gene Researchers try to treat fatal CF with GENE THERAPY

33. Gene therapy = replacing a defective genes with a healthy, normal one This treatment is used by GENETIC ENGINEERS sometimes called GENE THERAPISTS. This treatment may 1 day cure most genetic diseases, like CF, MS, MD, diabetes, & dyslexia. The difficulty is not finding healthy genes, but introducing the normal genes into defective DNA.

34. 1-2 REVIEW 1 Human Biology is a large part of everday life 2 Addressing a growing human population, environmental damage, & human disease demand an answer we are gradually finding.

35. HOW IS HUMAN BIOLOGY STUDIED? Scientific Method 1 Observation --- using the 5 senses 2 Hypothesis---educated guess 3 Prediction that is falsifiable (can be proven wrong) 4Test (Experiment) 5Conclusion

36. OBSERVATION Native American peoples today have smaller teeth than the skulls of the same peoples 2000 years ago.

37. HYPOTHESIS Native American peoples needed larger teeth to eat grains and unprocessed foods before industry entered the USA and made other foods easier to obtain.

38. PREDICTION IF the hypothesis is TRUE… Comparing teeth measurements on the skulls of ancient Shawnees to those of modern Shawnees on OK reservations will prove that the modern teeth are smaller. IF the hypothesis is NOT TRUE…

39. TEST Perform an EXPERIMENT Experiment = test to prove or disprove a hypothesis Apply the comparative method to the Sioux, Iroquois, or Chickasaw Tribes. Ask “Why are the Shawnee different?” if they prove to differ in teeth size compared to other tribes. Research Shawnee diet and eating habits.

40. CONCLUSION Evidence from the experiment either does or does not support the hypothesis. In the comparative teeth experiment… The evidence actually does support the hypothesis. From this we could form a CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT

41. CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT Comparing teeth size in 2000 year old Shawnees to the modern day Shawnee proves that Shawnee teeth have gotten smaller.

42. Example of the Scientific Method Observation: Eating red grapes induces labor in rats Hypothesis: Caused by an agent in red grapes Prediction: If the hypothesis is true, then pregnant rats given red grape juice (experimental treatment) will go into labor before rats given white grape juice (control treatment) go into labor. Test: Do the experiment Conclusion: Based on the results of the experiment

43. THEORY & LAW THEORY = explanation based on a set of related hypotheses that have been tested & confirmed many times EX- Theory of Evolution LAW = theory or a set of theories generally accepted as scientifically true & accurate “ Some theories are so strongly supported that likelihood of their being rejected in the future is small” EX – Law of Gravity

44. SCIENTIFIC TRUTH SCIENTIFIC TRUTH… “There is no absolute certainty in a scientific theory. The possibility always remains that future evidence will cause a scientific theory to be revised or rejected. A scientist’s acceptance of a theory is always provisional.” EC- Define “FAITH”

45. ATOMS Smallest units of matter Cannot be broken down further by chemical means Made of 3 subatomic particles… 1 Proton 2 Electron 3 Neutron

46. SUBATOMIC CHART Neutrons Protons Electrons Mass 1 1 ~0 Charge 0 +1 -1 Symbol nº p+ e-

47. SUBATOMIC MASS & CHARGE Subatomic mass is measured in a unit called “amu” amu stands for “atomic mass unit” 1 amu = the mass of 1 p+ 1 amu = 1/1,660,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 gram Roughly 1.7 septillionth of a paper clip’s mass! The +1 charge of the p+ and the –1 charge of the e- are relative charges. There’s no actual unit (like volt) Actual charges: +1.67x10 -19 coulombs (C) for p+ -1.67x10 -19 coulombs for e-

48. NUCLEUS Nucleus = center of the atom Always has p+… Thus it always has an overall + charge. Sometimes it contains neutrons (NO charge)

49. ORBITALS A “cloud” or haze of orbiting e- around the nucleus AKA “Energy levels, energy shells, e- levels, or e- shells” Electrons ALWAYS orbit the nucleus Electrons are NEVER found inside the nucleus

50. ALL ATOMS ARE ELECTRICALLY BALANCED (electrically neutral) There is ALWAYS 1 e- for every p+ Thus… # p+ = # e- EX- 2 p+ + 2 e- = 0 (electrically neutral)

51. ELEMENTS Defined as a pure substance of only 1 type of atom There are currently 114 known elements Make up the “Periodic Table of the Elements” They differ in their number of protons (p+) ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons (p+) Atomic # = # p+

52. ATOMIC NUMBER Atomic # = # p+ EX- Hydrogen has 1 p+, Helium has 2 p+ Thus… 1 H and 2 He H has the atomic # 1, He has the atomic # 2

53. ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY There are about 20 Most common are: Element Atomic # Carbon (C) 6 Hydrogen (H) 1 Oxygen (O) 8 Nitrogen (N) 7 Phosphorus (P) 15

54. ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass) Atomic weight (mass) refers to the weight (mass) of the nucleus; or the mass of all those p+ and nº Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº RECALL… the nucleus is made of p+ and nº p+ and nº each weigh 1 amu (atomic mass unit) Adding a p+ adds BOTH +1 amu and +1 C to the nucleus. Adding a nº adds ONLY +1 amu. There is no extra charge added (after all neutrons are neutral, O C) So….

55. ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass) Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº More p+ means more + charge More nº just means it weighs more Neutrons are atomic fat!! They just add weight and nothing else.

56. ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY There are about 20 Most common are: Element Atomic # Atomic Weight Carbon (C) 6 12 Hydrogen (H) 1 1 Oxygen (O) 8 16 Nitrogen (N) 7 14 Phosphorus (P) 15 31 Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº

57. ATOMIC DATA How to quickly find … # p+ [= atomic number] # e- [= atomic number also] RECALL…all atoms are balanced so #p+ = #e- # nº [atomic weight – atomic number = #nº] (#p+ + #nº) -- #p+ = #nº EX- (2 + 3) -- 2 = 3nº

58. ISOTOPES Isotope = An element that does not have the typical number of neutrons EX- Natural carbon is 12 C. 11 C, 13 C, and 14 C are isotopes (as in 14 C dating) (sometimes less nº, sometimes more nº) Often unstable causing the nucleus to disintegrate This causes the emission of high energy particles (like X rays) known as RADIATION.

59. MOLECULES & COMPOUNDS Molecule = Group of atoms chemically joined Compound = substance made of more than 1 kind of element EX- 2 oxygen atoms  1 oxygen gas molecule (O+O)  (O 2 ) 2 hydrogen atoms + 1 oxygen atom  H 2 O (water) Water is BOTH a molecule & a compound.

60. 3 KINDS OF CHEMICAL BONDS 1 Ionic = steals e- (attraction of +/-) 2 Covalent = shares e- 3 Hydrogen = polarity

61. IONIC BONDS Steals e- to form IONS that attract each other ION = atom with an overall +/- charge Cation = + ions Anion = -- ions EX- Na+ attracts Cl- to form NaCl….table salt NaCl is an example of an IONIC compound

62. COVALENT BONDS Covalent bonds form when atoms share e- EX- Carbon shares e- with 4 hydrogen atoms H | This is CH 4 (methane) H--- C ---H | H

63. HYDROGEN BONDING Weakest bond, occurs between POLAR molecules Polar molecules have 1 + end and 1 – end, sort of like a bar magnet or a AA battery. They can bond to themselves in chains. EX- +[||||||||||]-- +[||||||||||]-- +[||||||||||]--

64. WATER IS POLAR! Water bonds to itself in chains H H H H + O- + O- + O- + O- H H H H

65. WHY IS WATER WET? (yes, there really is a reason why!) Because it is both ADHESIVE & COHESIVE! Cohesive = it bonds to itself (in drops) Adhesive = it bonds to other things (like glass) H H H H + O- + O- + O- + O- H H H H

66. Review the 3 Kinds of Chemical Bonds 1 Ionic- By gaining or losing e-, ions of opposite charges are attracted to each other 2 Covalent- atoms sharing e- 3 Hydrogen- weak bond between the oppositely charged poles (ends) of polar molecules

67. PREDICTING CHEMICAL BONDS Which chemicals will bond and which bond they form is not by chance. It depends on the # of e- needed to complete the outermost electron orbital. VALENCE electrons = the outermost electrons This is the basic idea of the Octet Rule

68. THE OCTET RULE Oct- = 8 A) Inner orbitals MUST fill first B) 1 st orbital holds 2 e- max C) 2 nd orbital holds 8 e- max D) 3 rd orbital holds 8 e- max

69. WHAT DETERMINES IF AN ATOM IS BALANCED OR STABLE? By using the term ATOM, we mean it is BALANCED or ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL BALANCED means the #p+ = #e- All (+)s plus all (-)s = 0, they cancel each other out STABLE means the chemicals will not REACT (will not try to form any type of bond). STABLE = they have a FULL VALENCE

70. INERT GASES Inert = not active, will not react Have a completed outer (valence) e- orbital is stable Last column on right in Periodic Table of Elements AKA Noble Gases

71. INERT GASES (He) Helium (He): atomic # = 2 2 p+ and 2 e- 2 e- in inner orbital, He is chemically non-reactive

72. INERT GASES (Ne) Neon (Ne): atomic # = 10 2 e- in inner orbital, 8 e- in 2 nd orbital Ne is chemically non-reactive

73. IONS An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that carries an electric charge (+/-) Formed by too many or too little e- Cation = + ion Anion = -- ion EX- Na+, Cl-, NH 4 +, C 2 H 3 O 2 -

74. SODIUM CATION Sodium : atomic # = 11 11 p+ and 11 e- 2 e- in 1 st orbital, 8 e- in 2 nd orbital & 1 e- extra The extra e- is lost (stolen), leaving the sodium cation with a net positive charge…Na +

75. CHLORINE ANION Chlorine: atomic # = 17 17 p+ and 17 e- 2 e- in 1 st orbital, 8 e- in 2 nd orbital, 7 e- extra 7 extra e- fill the 3 rd orbital It needs 1 more e- to be chemically stable Chlorine anion attracts an extra e- to complete its valence orbital  has a net negative charge (Cl-)

76. OPPOSITES ATTRACT + and – charged ions attract each other Na+ joins Cl- to become NaCl (table salt) The molecule is both BALANCED & STABLE. This is an IONIC BOND The bond comes from the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions e- pass from 1 ion to another They are NOT shared, more like STOLEN!

77. COVALENT BONDS When e- are shared between atoms HYDROGEN Hydrogen: atomic # = 1 1p+ and 1 e- Needs 1 more e- to complete 1 st orbital

78. COVALENT BONDS CARBON Carbon: atomic # = 6 6 p+ and 6 e- 6 e- is enough to fill the 1 st orbital (2 e-) with 4 e- left over for the 2 nd orbital It needs 4 more e- to complete it valence.

79. COVALENT SINGLE BONDS When 1 e- is shared, shown by 1 line 1 carbon shares its valent e- with 4 hydrogens H | This is CH 4 (methane) H--- C ---H | H

80. COVALENT BONDS OXYGEN Oxygen: atomic # = 8 8p+ and 8 e- Inner orbital filled with 2 e- 6 e- left over for 2 nd orbital It needs 2 more e- to complete the 2 nd orbital

81. DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS When 2 pairs of electrons are shared Shown by 2 lines (=) EX- O=C=O……CO 2 ……….Carbon dioxide O=O……….O 2 …………Diatomic oxygen H—O—N—O….HNO 3 ….Nitric acid || H Diatomic = 2 alike atoms bonded together (N 2,O 2, H 2 )

82. HYDROGEN BONDS Relatively weak bond between a positively charged hydrogen ion (H+) in a molecule and a negatively charged ion in another molecule EX- RECALL, polar water forms cohesive chains. HH O …negative O end attracted by positive H end HH O

83. POLAR MOLECULES Polar molecules = molecules with an unequal distribution of electrical charge (more e- on 1 end) EX- water, isopropyl alcohol, hydrogen peroxide

84. NONPOLAR MOLECULES Nonpolar molecules- molecules that have an equal distribution of electrical charges (e-) EX- gasoline, oil, wax, fatty acids

85. RATING THE STRENGTHS OF CHEMICALS BONDS GOLD--------Covalent SILVER-------Ionic BRONZE-----Hydrogen

86. REVIEW All matter is made of atoms Atoms consist of e-, p+, & nº Molecule= group of atoms bound by covalent bonds H bonding occurs between polar molecules Ion = atom with a charge Opposites charges may form ionic bonds Sec 2-1 Q1-5 pg 30

87. WHAT IS pH? Water has 2 ions H+ plus OH- = H 2 O H+ cation is a positive hydrogen ion OH- anion is called a hydroxide or hydroxyl group pH is a way of counting those H+ cations

88. POTENZ H+ The H in pH stands for H+ (or hydrogen cation) The p in pH stands for “potenz” Potenz is the German term for “the negative power of {H+}” When {H+} increases, {OH-} decreases It’s a fraction! {H+} x {OH-} = 10 -14 or 1/100,000,000,000,000

89. THE pH SCALE Think of pH as asking “How many H+ are in a solution?” The pH scale refers to {H+} only The pH scale runs from 0-14 <7 = acid, more H+ 7 =neutral, like water because it has both H+ & OH- >7 = base or alkaline, less H+

90. THE pH SCALE 0---------------------------7----------------------------14 Acid Base H+, OH- H+, OH- Neutral (H 2 O or HOH) H+ = OH-

91. THE pH SCALE

92. The pH UNIT Each pH unit represents a factor of 10 EX- The pH 6 is 100x more acidic than the pH 8 (8-6 = 2…10 2 … 100) Try this…Item A = pH 9, Item B = pH 5 Which Item is more acidic and by how much?

93. pH IN THE HUMAN BODY The body must maintain the pH of stuff within a narrow range limits for the normal functioning of physiological processes Blood pH………………….7.2-7.4 Saliva (spit) pH……………7 Cytoplasm………………….7.2 Stomach juices pH…………2 Lysosome* pH………………4-5 Small intestine pH………….8 * cell’s digestive enzyme sac--digests glucose (#1 human fuel)

94. WATER Covers 75% of the planet Earth Is molecularly 67% of the human body Polar ions dissolve well in it, after all… Water is the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT, because most things will dissolve in it. Has a high heat of evaporation  heat constancy Water is not lost easily = body temp. remains stable

95. OTHER MOLECULES Other molecules are much, much bigger than water EX- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, DNA These are ORGANIC molecules… they all contain carbon (C) Sec 2-2 Q1-5 pg 33

96. ORGANIC MOLECULES Always contain carbon (C) NO C, NO LIFE! All life on Earth is C based C’s 4 bonding sites allow life to be possible. Life on other planets SHOULD also be C based. If not, they may be silicon (Si) based as it too has 4 bonding sites. Note the location of C and Si on the Periodic Table.

97. ORGANIC MOLECULES Always contain carbon (C ) Usually also contain hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), &/or nitrogen (N) C and others are usually in long covalent chains EX- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes, & nucleic acids

98. CARBOHYDRATES Ratio of C:H:O = 1:2:1 EX- C 1 H 2 O 1 or C 3 H 6 O 3 Often abbreviated as CHO May exist as single molecules or in complex chains

99. MONOSACCHARIDES Simple sugars Mono = 1, saccharide = sugar Sugar names end in –ose Glucose- C 6 H 12 O 6 ---the basic plant sugar Fructose- in fruits like pears, pineapples Galactose- in plants and milk

100. MONOSACCHARIDES

101. DISACCHARIDES Are double sugars Di- means 2 Monosaccharides + monosaccharides = disaccharide Sucrose – some fruits Lactose – in milk Maltose – in (malt) chocolate

102. DISACCHARIDES

103. POLYSACCHARIDES Polysaccharides are CHOs that exist as long chains of monosaccharides. Poly- = many EX- Starch- in potatoes Glycogen-stored body energy (not exactly fat; close) Cellulose- pulpy stuff from plants; makes paper Chitin (KI’ ten)- hard fiber found in animal shells, insect exoskeletons (shells) & in the cell walls of fungi (mold & mildew)

104. POLYSACCHARIDES

105. CHO COMPLEXITY CHOs are divided into 2 groups: Simple CHOs & Complex CHOs Simple CHOs include both monosaccharides and disaccharides Complex CHOs include polysaccharides

106. SIMPLE CHOs Covalent bonds hold ALL monosaccharides together Glucose is the most important simple CHO! Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) is the primary fuel for humans! (it’s the only fuel source used by the brain!) Glucose is made by plants during photosynthesis Glucose is made of 6 C molecules that form a ring when they are dissolved in water.

107. EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE CHOs Mono- + Mono- = Di- glucose + fructose = SUCROSE glucose + glucose = MALTOSE glucose + galactose = LACTOSE

108. COMPLEX CHOs polysaccharidesThese are polysaccharides = long chains of monosaccharides joined by covalent bonds They serve as stored energy in plants (starch) & animals (glycogen) Humans store glycogen in the liver & muscles May be converted back into glucose when energy is needed

109. COMPLEX CHOs Some polysaccharides are rigid structural materials: EX- Cellulose in plants, Chitin in arthropod shells Mammals cannot free glucose from cellulose alone We need help from bacteria in the post-stomach digestive tract to break down cellulose fibers Cellulose fibers are what we call “roughage” It is truly rough to digest—like the strings in celery

110. REVIEW pH scale 0-14, 0 = acid (H+), 14 = base (OH-) 7 = neutral (H 2 O or HOH) has both H+ & OH- No C, No water, NO LIFE! C,H,O,N make organic molecules = long chains Mono-, disaccharides are simple CHOs Polysaccharides are complex CHOs CHOs give people energy Glucose is the primary human fuel

111. LIPIDS Type of fat These are non-polar molecules Nonpolar=equal distribution of electrical charge (e-)

112. NONPOLAR REPELS WATER Nonpolar molecules never dissolve in water EX- water will not dissolve oil, gas, or wax Hydrophobic-(fears water) won’t dissolve in H 2 O Hydrophilic- (loves water) easily dissolves in H 2 O

113. LAW OF POLARITY Like dissolves in like Polar dissolves in polar ONLY Nonpolar dissolves in nonpolar ONLY “Water and oil don’t mix!”

114. 3 TYPES OF LIPIDS ESSENTIAL TO HUMANS 1 Triglycerides 2 Phospholipids 3 Steroids

115. TRIGLYCERIDES Made of a Glycerol head and 3 Fatty Acid tails May be saturated or unsaturated

116. SATURATED FATTY ACIDS The saturated fatty acid tails are C chains crammed full or “saturated” with hydrogen atoms. Saturated fats (EX-butter) are solid at room temp. Too much is VERY unhealthy!

117. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS A double covalent bond exists between at least 1 pair of Cs (where Hs could bond with the C) C=C Unsaturated fats (EX-olive oil) -liquid at room temp. MUCH healthier (hydrogenated vegetable oil)

118. POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Unsaturated fats with fatty acid chains containing more than 1 double covalent bond Poly- = many……EX- C=C=C=C Healthiest of all!

119. PHOSPHOLIPIDS Glycerol head,2 fatty acids + phosphate group (PO 4 ) Glycerol & fatty acids are nonpolar (hydrophobic) Phosphate groups are polar (hydrophilic) A cell membrane (cell’s skin) is made of a double layer of phospholipids = phospholipid bilayer

120. STEROIDS 4 C rings + a functional group ( R) Many different kinds Important in reproductive maturation & metabolism EX- Estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol NO FAT, NO SEX!

121. PROTEINS PROTEINS = chains of AMINO ACIDS (AA) Proteins are the building blocks of most body structures (hair, cells, muscle, bone…) Most common organic molecule..its even in comets Found in ALL life.

122. AMINO ACIDS Chainlike molecules with a central C bonded to: 1 Amino group (NH 2 ) 2 Carboxyl group (COOH) 3 a single hydrogen atom (H) 4 Side functional group (R )

123. THE AMINO ALPHABET There are 20 amino acids important to biology There are 26 letters in the English alphabet orderamount order amountLike how the order and amount of letters used determine which word made, so the order and amount of AA used determine which protein is made. What words are made from T,C,A?

124. NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleic acids = Long chains of smaller molecules called NUCLEOTIDES Nucleotides have 3 parts: 1 sugar (-ose) 2 base (OH-, the opposite of an acid) 3 phosphate group (PO 4 )

125. 2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS 1 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 2 RNA (ribonucleic acid)

126. DNA DNA has 2 strands of nucleotides that spiral around each other. This is called a double helix Shape was discovered by Watson & Crick in 1953 The strands are held together by H bonds between bases across from each other forming “the rungs of the twisted ladder.”

127. CHROMOSOMES ARE DNA genesChromosomes are made up of very long strands of DNA, which is the code on genes containing the instructions for making proteins

128. RNA Single strand of nucleotides Plays several roles in cells, esp. in making protein

129. ATP ATP = a nucleotide called adenosine triphosphate It’s a single nucleotide with 2 extra, high energy-storing phosphate (PO 4 ) groups It stores energy ONLY TEMPORARILY, like a battery, between the 2 nd & 3 rd PO 4 ’s. A-PO 4 -PO 4 PO 4 When we catabolize food, energy is released. Energy is captured & stored in ATP, later used to operate the body’s individual cells.

130. REVIEW Organic componds (C) are found in living things. CHOs, like glucose, are energy sources & some are used as structural materials in organisms. Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy; found in cell membranes as phosphlipids. Proteins are chains of AA, The AA sequence determines a protein’s shape & function. Nucleic acids store & transmit heredity info. ATP is the main energy currency of cells Sec 2-3 Q 1-5 pg 37

131. WHAT GOOD ARE PROTEINS? ENZYME BOOK CH 2-4?

132. CYTOLOGY Cyte- = cell -ology = study of CYTOLOGY = study of cells

133. FOUNDERS OF CYTOLOGY Robert Hooke Anton van Leeuwenhoek Mattias Schleiden Theodor Schwann Rudolph Virchow

134. ROBERT HOOKE In 1665 observed slices of cork under a microscope He saw little boxes He named these boxes “cells,” because they reminded him of the small rooms where monks lived inside monastaries.

135. ANTON van LEEUWENHOEK Used a microscope to observe drops of rain water He discovered little creatures living there! He named these creatures “animalcules,” which means “tiny animals.”

136. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS Abbreviated SI Same thing as the metric system It is a decimal system All units are based upon powers of 10 WHY?

137. BRIEF SI TABLE Meter = base unit for measuring distance Meter literally means “measure”________________ kilo- = 1,000 -meter = 1 centi- =.01 or 1/100 milli- =.001 or 1/1000 micro- =.000001 or 1/1,000,000 (1 millionth) nano- =.000000001 or 1/1,000,000,000 (1 billionth)

138. SI SYMBOLS km = kilometer meter = 3.???ft cm = centimeter mm = millimeter µm = micrometer nm = nanometer

139. CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROSCOPES Two Types of Microscopes 1 Light microscopes 2 Electron microscopes

140. LIGHT MICROSCOPES Light passes through one or more lenses to produce an enlarged image of a specimen or MICROGRAPH MICROGRAPH = an image produced by a microscope

141. MAGNIFICATION Ability to make an image appear larger than its actual size EX- Magnification value of 200x means the image is 200 times larger than the actual specimen

142. RESOLUTION A measure of the clarity of an image RECALL…As magnification increases, resolution decreases! The bigger the image, the blurrier it gets!

143. ELECTRON MICROSCOPES Forms an image of a specimen using a beam of electrons instead of light No cell can survive an e- microscope as specimen preparation requires a type of staining & being placed in a vacuum (&/or being sliced!) TWO TYPES 1 TEM = transmission e- microscope 2 SEM = scanning e- microscope

144. TEM Transmission e- microscope The e- beam is aimed at a slice of a specimen stained with metal ions TEM micrographs are always black & white

145. SEM Scanning e- microscope The e- beam is aimed at a specimen coated with metal ions SEM micrographs are 3D, usually B&W, but can be artificially colored

146. STM Scanning Tunneling Microscope Uses a needle-like probe to measure differences in voltage caused by e- s that “leak,”or tunnel, from the surface of a specimen A computer tracks the movement of the probe STM micrographs are 3D and in color STMs can be used to study living specimens You can even see individual atoms!

147. MICROSCOPE REVIEW Microscopes enable us to examine the details of cell structure & to understand how organisms function. Scientists use the SI system to measure the size of objects Light microscopes have a low magnification & can be used to examine living cells. Electron microscopes have a high magnification, but cannot be used to study living cells The STM uses a computer to generate 3D images of a specimen. Sec 3-1 Q1-5 pg 54

148. CELL THEORISTS Mattias Schleiden-- German botanist in 1838 concluded that a plant was composed entirely of cells Theodor Schwann-- German zoologist who claimed that animals were also made up of cells Rudolph Virchow-- German physician who determined that cells come only from other cells

149. CELL THEORY Based on the combined observations of Schleiden, Schwann, & Virchow All living things are made of one or more cells Cells are the basic unit of structure & function All cells arise from pre-existing cells

150. CELLS MUST BE SMALL Small cells work more efficiently than large cells All substances that enter or leave a cell must cross the cell’s surface If the cell’s surface-to-area ratio is too low, substances cannot move through the cell quickly enough to meet the cell’s needs. Substances do not need to travel as far to reach the center of a smaller cell. This is why smaller things are more efficient (ants).

151. CELL FEATURES There are many parts needed to make up a functioning cell. These “parts” are referred to as cellular features or organelles (meaning ‘little organs’)

152. CELL MEMBRANE Outer boundary, “skin” Encloses the cell & separates its interior from its outer surroundings Regulates what enters & leaves the cell

153. CYTOPLASM Is the interior of a cell It is mostly water, so it is very fluid

154. CYTOSKELETON A collection of connected microscopic protein fibers that suspends other cell structures within the cytoplasm Like the metal “skeleton” of a skyscraper, only much smaller. The cytoskeleton holds the cell together & keeps it from collapsing

155. RIBOSOMES Cellular structures that make protein These are the Protein Factories!

156. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid Provides the instructions for making protein that will be read by the ribosomes. These instructions regulate cell activity and provide a raw building material for making what the cell needs. It also enables the cell to reproduce by storing hereditary information.

157. TWO TYPES OF CELLS 1 Prokaryotes 2 Eukaryotes

158. PROKARYOTES Simplest & smallest cells Lack a nucleus & other internal compartments known as “organelles.” Cannot carry out specialized functions Genetic material is a single circular strand of DNA Modern prokaryotes are called BACTERIA

159. BACTERIA Modern prokaryotes Exist in a broad range of conditions Grow & divide rapidly Some can make their own food Some can live without oxygen Enzymes & ribosomes are free to move around in the cytoplasm because there are no internal structures (organelles) to divide the cell into compartments = their “parts” float around in there! DNA is circular (ring), suspended in the cytoplasm

160. CELL WALL Surrounds the cell membrane to provide protection, structure, & support. Think of the cell membrane as the SKIN, The cell wall as the SUIT OF ARMOR. Cell walls are found in bacteria, fungi, & plants.

161. CAPSULE Strands of polysaccharides that may surround the cell wall of a bacteria These enable the bacteria to cling to almost anything The capsule is like a Velcro suit!

162. FLAGELLA flagellumSingle (only 1) = called a flagellum flagellaMore than one = called flagella Long, threadlike structures that protrude from the cell’s surface Long, whip-like “tails” that allow some cells to swim or move

163. EUKARYOTES First cells with internal compartments Have a nucleus Have other “organelles”

164. NUCLEUS Control center of the cell, like the “brain” Internal compartment (organelle) that houses the cell’s DNA It has all the info. (DNA), so it is the boss (control center)!

165. ORGANELLE Any structure that carries out a specific activity inside of a cell It comes from the French language meaning “little organs.” (-elle = little)

166. CILIA Small hair-like structures, found on some eukaryotes, that protrude from the cell membrane. Used to make oar-like movements May be used to help a cell swim through a fluid May also be used to move substances across a cell’s surface… EX- Cilia in the wind pipes sweep debris & mucus out of the lungs

167. CYTOPLASM vs. PROTOPLASM Cytoplasm = everything inside the cell membrane, BUT OUTSIDE the nucleus Protoplasm = Everything inside the cell membrane, including the nucleus Protoplasm is ALL’DAT, cytoplasm is not. EX- Cytoplasm + Nucleus = Protoplasm

168. CYTOSKELETON FIBERS The eukaryotic cell is supported by the cytoskeleton There are 2 types of protein fibers that form the cytoskeleton: 1 Microtubules—hollow, flexible 2 Microfilaments—solid, rigid

169. MICROTUBULES 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton Microtubules are long tubes (tubules) Long, hollow tubes that extend throughout the cytoplasm These, being hollow, are easy to bend and allow the cell to flex and it may also help move organelles around inside the cell

170. MICROFILAMENTS 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton These are thin protein strands that help support the cell’s shape & structure They are solid, unlike microtubules. These give strength and rigidity to the cytoskeleton Microfilaments hold things in place, restricting movement

171. CELL STRUCTURE REVIEW Cell membrane = Skin Cell wall = Suit of Armor Capsule = Velcro Suit Nucleus = “Brain” Flagella = long swimming tail, whip-like Cilia = short swimming hairs, oar-like Cytoskeleton = 2 protein fibers 1 microtubules (hollow), 2 microfilament (solid)

172. CELL MEMBRANES Cell membranes are fluid like a soap bubble. The fluidity of the cell membrane is caused by lipids These lipids form a barrier that separates the inside of a cell from the outer environment selectively permeable =The cell membrane is selectively permeable = It allows only certain substances to enter and exit the cell

173. PHOSPHOLIPIDS Interacts with water to cause a cell membrane to become selectively permeable Made of a phosphate group (PO 4 ) with 2 fatty acids Has a “polar head” and 2 “nonpolar tails” The head contains the phosphate group & is attracted to water (hydrophilic = loves water) The tails contain the nonpolar fatty acids & repels water (hydrophobic = fears water)

174. LIPID BILAYER Phospholipids arranged in double layers (2 ply) This arrangement is found in the cell membrane Nonpolar tails of the phospholipids make up the interior of the bilayer; they are forced to remain here because water inside & outside the cell repels them. Ions & polar molecules, including proteins & sugars, are repelled by the nonpolar interior of the bilayer, forcing them to remain outside the cell. It takes an “active door” to let them inside the cell.

175. PROTEINS EMBEDDED IN THE LIPID BILAYER Proteins are chains of amino acids, some of which are polar, others nonpolar. The nonpolar parts (center) of a protein is attracted to the interior of the lipid bilayer, but is repelled by the water inside & outside the cell. The polar parts (ends) of the protein are attracted to the water on both sides of the lipid bilayer. These attractions hold the protein in the proper position inside the lipid bilayer (cell membrane).

176. TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS 1 Cell-surface marker proteins attached to a CHO help define cell type (like a name tag…liver, heart, blood, etc.…) 2 Receptor proteins recognize & join with specific substances. 3 Enzymes embedded in the cell membrane are involved in biochemical reactions inside the cell. 4 Transport proteins aid in the movement of substances into & out of the cell.

177. TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS REVIEW 1 Cell-surface marker proteins = name tags 2 Receptor proteins = antennae for hormones/signals 3 Enzymes = speed up biochemical reactions 4 Transport proteins = doorways REMEMBER… The cell membrane is fluid due to the lipids, allowing the proteins to move or float round… Imagine a wall with a floating door! They actually exist!

178. REVIEW The cell theory has 3 parts. Small cells function more efficiently than large ones because small cells have a higher surface-area-to- volume ratio than larger cells. All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, & DNA. Prokaryotic cells = NO nucleus, NO organelles Eukaryotic cells = HAVE nucleus, organelles, cytoskeleton The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane is made of a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in cell membranes include enzymes, receptor proteins, transport proteins, & cell-surface marker proteins Sec 3-2 Q1-5 pg 60

179. ORGANELLES (pgs 55-66) “Little organs” inside a cell, much like our own organs. These are the separate compartments inside a cell that perform specialized functions. Organelles are suspended in CYTOSOL (fluid) Organelles + Cytosol = Cytoplasm (solids + fluid) Organelles are ONLY found in eukaryotes. (NOT in prokaryotes = bacteria)

180. EXAMPLES OF ORGANELLES 1 Nucleus 2 Nucleolus 3 Ribosomes 4 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = rER + sER 5 Golgi apparatus 6 Cell membrane (& cell wall if present) 7 Mitochondria 8 Lysosomes 9 Peroxisomes 10 Centrioles

181. NUCLEUS Control center of a cell, “brain” Surrounded by a double membrane called the “nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane.” Ribosomal proteins & RNA are made here Ribosomes are partially formed in a central area of the nucleus called the NUCLEOLUS.

182. NUCLEAR DNA Most of the cell’s DNA is stored in the nucleus. Nuclear DNA stores genetic information. It also contains the instructions for the proper amino acid sequence of each protein. Proteins regulate chemical reactions & many other cellular functions THUS— becauseThe nucleus is the control center because it regulates cell structure & function by controlling protein production.

183. DNA & CHROMOSOMES Most of the cell’s DNA is stored in the nucleus DNA exists most of the time in the form of elongated strands or strings. When a cell is about to divide, DNA strands wind into a compact rod shaped form called Chromosomes. These are not visible unless cell ready to divide. DNA is the “yarn,” Chromosomes are the “skeen,” Genes are the “designs/ stripes in the skeen.”

184. NUCLEOLUS Very center of the nucleus Completely enclosed by the nucleus Houses RNA

185. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE Sometimes called the “nuclear membrane” It completely encloses the nucleus, “skin” Made of 2 lipid bilayers that separate the nucleus from the cytoplasm Small channels called nuclear pores cover its surface These pores allow RNA to move out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell.

186. RIBOSOMES They make protein! HOW? 1 The genetic code of DNA is translated into mesenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus. 2 mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope, heads to the ribosomes. 3 Ribosomes chemically read the translated code on the mRNA strands & link amino acids together in the correct sequence to make a protein. The mRNA holds a translation of DNA’s instructions on which order to place the amino acids in to make a specific protein.

187. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) Endo- = inside, -plasmic = cytoplasm Reticulum = network or system ER = a network inside the cytoplasm of a cell The ER is a system of internal membranes that move proteins & other substances throughout the cell. The membranes are made up of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Its usually directly attached to the inside of the cell membrane. ER is divided into the rough ER & the smooth ER.

188. ROUGH ER (rER) This is the part of the ER that houses ribosomes. RECALL…Ribosomes make protein The rER helps transport the proteins made by the attached ribosomes, like a railroad next to a factory. As a protein is made, it passes through the ER membrane into the hollow of the ER tube. The completed protein becomes surrounded as a piece of the ER wall is pinched off to form a Vesicle (fatty sac) around the new protein like a package.

189. VESICLES Vesicles are a small membrane sac that transports substances in a cell. They are usually made from the pinched off walls of an organelle or a lipid bilayer. EX-Vesicles can be made from the walls of the ER, Golgi apparatus, & cell membrane.

190. SMOOTH ER (sER) Part of the ER that lacks ribosomes (that is why its smooth!). Its downstream from the rough ER (rER). It simply exists as a tube through which vesicles (containing proteins and other substances) travel. The sER makes phospholipids to maintain & patch the cell membrane. It also detoxifies toxins like alcohol—liver cells contain many lengths of sER.

191. GOLGI APPARATUS Named after ________ Golgi Set of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that serve to package & distribute proteins. Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus modify the proteins. Modified proteins are repackaged into new vesicles that form from the pinched-off lipid surface of the Golgi apparatus.

192. CELL MEMBRANE Acts as a skin to protect & hold the cell together. However, vesicles can flow through the cell membrane easily as to export its contents outside the cell. When vesicles empty their contents outside the cell, the process is called EXOCYTOSIS, meaning to exit the cell.

193. THE MIGHTY MITOCHONDRIA Mitochondrion if singular, (2+ = Mitochondria) This is the organelle that harvests energy from organic compounds to make ATP, the main energy currency of cells This is the “Powerhouse of the Cell.” Cells with a high energy requirement, like muscle cells, may contain thousands of mitochondria.

194. MITOCHONDRIAL STRUCTURE It has both an inner & an outer membrane The outer is smooth, the inner is folded to increase the surface area for chemical reactions. Chemical reactions occur in both membranes to produce ATP, but mostly on the folded inner membrane because there is more room. Mito pic! needed

195. MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION These are the sites of energy production. C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2  6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + E glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy This chemical equation makes life on Earth possible. Cellular respiration is photosynthesis in reverse!

196. WHAT HAPPENS TO THE ENERGY? Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy saver of the cell. ATP works like a battery to temporarily store energy High energy bonds exist between the last 2 PO 4 s… A-PO 4 -PO 4 PO 4 EACH molecule of glucose charges 38 ATPs !!!

197. ATP Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide It is the main energy currency of cells. Some ATP is produced in the cytoplasm, but the majority is produced by mitochondria. The ATPs circulates throughout the body dispersing energy needed for skeletal muscles & the heart, as well as the energy needed to start chemical reactions for life, memories, & dreams, to name a few uses. Anywhere energy is needed, ATP supplies.

198. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA Mitochondria also have their own DNA, ribosomes, & produce some of their own proteins! Mitochondrial DNA is independent of nuclear DNA & is similar to the circular DNA of bacteria. Endosymbiotic TheoryThe widely accepted Endosymbiotic Theory, states that prokaryotes may be the ancestors of animal mitochondria, that at 1 time they were free living organisms that formed a mutual relationship with another cell!

199. ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY?

200. LYSOSOMES Small vesicles (also considered organelles) that contain a cell’s digestive enzymes. This is one type of vesicle that contains a protein (enzyme) formed by the Golgi apparatus that stays inside the cell for its function; it does not leave the cell by the process or exocytosis. The PEROXISOME is another example of a vesicle that remains inside the cell.

201. LYSOSOME FUNCTIONS They often migrate to mitochondria to digest glucose to release energy used to charge ATP. Others are used to eat bacteria, germs, invaders. Also used to recycle wornout/defective organelles & cells. Lots of them are inside WBCs (white blood cells) for immunity (eating germs).

202. PEROXISOMES Enzyme-filled vesicles that digest fats. RECALL...fats = long chains of nonpolar fatty acids Peroxisomes are also made by the Golgi apparatus & stay inside the cell, like lysosomes. They are involved in removing poisons. The human body’s natural filters contain many peroxisomes—in the liver & kidney cells.

203. CENTRIOLES A group of microtubules that aid in moving chromosomes around during cell reproduction. These make sure that each cell gets the correct number and copy of each chromosome set.

204. Organelles rvw? Proteins syn/ distrubution Plant cell features

205. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS is1 DNA in the nucleus is the instructions for making proteins. It tells what order in which to place amino acids. 2 DNA is translated into mRNA that leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope. 3 mRNA is read by ribosomes on the rER. The ribosomes gather amino acids together from the surrounding cytosol & bind them in the correct order to form a specific protein. 4 A new protein is made!

206. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 5 That new protein is engulfed as part of the ER wall pinches off to form a vesicle around the protein. 6 The vesicle serves as packaging as the protein is transported from the rER, through the sER, to the Golgi apparatus. 7 The Golgi apparatus processes (modifies) & puts the finishing touches on the customized protein. It then repackages the finished protein in a vesicle formed from part of the Golgi’s lipid wall.

207. PROTEIN DESTINATION From here, the 2 nd vesicle can either remain in the cell or be exported out through the cell membrane. If it is exported (EX- hormones, enzymes), the lipid vesicle just floats through the phospholipid cell membrane in the process of exocytosis. Other vesicles may remain inside the cell & function as lysosomes or peroxisomes.

208. QUICK PROTEIN PATHWAY 1 DNA translated into mRNA 2 mRNA leaves nucleus, goes to rER 3 Ribosomes of the rER read mRNA, makes protein 4 ER vesicle forms, leaves rER, sER, goes to Golgi 5 Golgi modifies & repackages finished protein into 2 nd vesicle 6 Vesicle either stays in cell or exocytosis occurs

209. QUICKIE! 1 DNA  mRNA 2 mRNA leaves nuke  rER 3 rER r’somes read mRNA, make protein from AA 4 ER vesicle  thru ER to Golgi 5 Golgi modifies protein  put in 2 nd vesicle 6 Either stays or leaves cell (exocytosis)

210. IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS All cells make protein. It is the basis of life; its the result of having DNA (or RNA in some cases). All human cells have these organelles & so do plants cells, but they have a few extra…

211. PLANT CELL FEATURES Plants have 3 major structures animal cells do not. 1 Cell Wall 2 Chloroplasts 3 Central Vacuole

212. CELL WALL It surrounds the cell membrane of a plant cell to provide support & protection. It does not prevent the movement of substances across the cell membrane. It is made of a mixture of proteins & CHOs. Also connects the cell with adjacent cells. Cell membrane = “skin”, Cell wall = “armor”

213. CHLOROPLASTS This organelle uses light to make CHOs from carbon dioxide & water (photosynthesis). Working along with mitochondria, they supply the plant with most of its energy needs. Chloro. = make sugar, Mito. = burn sugar Are surrounded by 2 membranes & have own DNA Like mitochondria, they are believed to be the descendents of free prokaryotes (Endosymbiotic Theory again).

214. CENTRAL VACUOLE Takes up most of the plant cell’s volume MUCH larger than any other vacuole in the cell Stores water & may contain ions, nutrients, & waste When the vacuole is full, it presses the cytoplasm against the cell wall making the cell rigid; this allows the plant to stand upright (overfull balloon) This water pressure is called TURGOR PRESSURE. It allows plants to withstand high winds and make simple movements (heliotropism, opening blossoms) Turgor makes the HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

215. HUMAN ORGANELLES TO KNOW Nucleus- cell’s control center, “brain” Mitochondria- powerhouse, get energy from glucose Ribosomes- makes protein, Vesicle- packaging ER- system of tubes for communication (subway) ----rER- houses ribosomes ----sER- makes phospholipids for the cell membrane Golgi apparatus- modifies, packages, directs protein Lysosome- digest most stuff Peroisomes- digests fats Cell membrane- “skin”

216. EUKARYOTIC CELL REVIEW The eukaryotic nucleus directs the cell’s activities & stores DNA. An internal membrane system (ER) produces, packages, & distributes proteins. Mitochondria harvest energy from organic compounds to charge ATP. Lysosomes digest & recycle a cell’s used,worn parts Plant cells have 3 organelles animal cells lack: Cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole Sec 3-3 Q1-5 pg 66

217. ATOMS TO CELLS The human body has more than 10 trillion cells That’s 10,000,000,000,000 + !!! There are more than 100 different types of cells with specialized functions (bone, nerve, muscle…) They all have organelles,cytosol, & a cell membrane

218. HOW CELLS GROW & REPRODUCE In 3 steps 1 Interphase  2 Mitosis  3 Cytokinesis Interphase- the doubling of DNA & chromosomes

219. DNA Stands for deoxyribonucleic acid It is just a fancy molecule, a combo of nucleotides, bases, phosphates & sugars. DNA comes in the form of CHROMOSOMES Chromosomes- strings of DNA wound around a central protein Humans have 46 chromosomes 23 from mom + 23 from dad = 46 in you! The process is called FERTILIZATION.

220. CHROMOSOMES TAKE ON 2 SHAPES Chromosomes can be present in a single or in a double strand Single- called a single CHROMATID [12 pack] Double- single chromatid copied & joined to itself (Like being joined to your clone) [24 pack] Interphase = when chromosomes go from single to double strands

221. MITOTIC CELL DIVISION Mitosis = division of a cell into 2 identical daughter cells Four stages = PMAT Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

222. I PMAT Although interphase is NOT part of mitosis, cell division occurs in these steps… IPMAT: I = Interphase P = Prophase M = Metaphase A = Anaphase T = Telophase

223. INTERPHASE We’ve seen is when the chromosomes get copied Opposite of Anaphase (1  2)

224. PROPHASE Nuclear envelope breaks down Chromosomes contract into the often recognized, tightly wound, double stranded, “butterfly” shape This is that double stranded chromosome

225. METAPHASE Chromosomes migrate to the cell’s equator (midline)

226. ANAPHASE Chromatids (strands) of each chromosome separate & go to opposite sides of the cell This is the opposite of interphase (2  1)

227. TELOPHASE Nuclear envelope reforms at each end

228. TELOPHASE & CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS = movement of cytoplasm Then the cell membrane pinches in half forming two separate cells

229. DAUGHTER CELLS These 2 new cells are called DAUGHTER CELLS They are both smaller than the parent (mother) cell The larger parent cell has split in two. Daughter cells are genetically identical ------Basically mitosis = cloning Yes, when a fertilized egg undergoes a rare mitotic division, we get identical twins.

230. MITOSIS REVIEW Cells- made of cell membrane, cytosol, & organelles Cell growth & division is: Interphase  mitosis (PMAT)  cytokinesis

231. MITOSIS REVIEW+broken telophase We are made of cells, about 10 trillion of them Typical cell life spans: hours to days to weeks We need our cells to be biologically PERFECT PERFECT = correct with a complete set of genetic instructions Mitosis prevents the “broken telophase” effect in copying genetic instruction “Broken telophase” effect- results in a bad copy job Mitosis has built in securities to prevent info. loss

232. MITOSIS REVIEW IPMAT, cytokinesis: Interphase- c’somes copy themselves(1  2stranded) Prophase- nuclear envelope disappears, chromosomes condense Metaphase- c’somes line up along cell’s equator Anaphase- chromatids (strands) pull apart (2  1) Telophase- cytokinesis occurs, nuclear envelope reappears, 2 new cells

233. MITOSIS REVIEW Or … I- c’somes get copied P- c’somes condense M- c’somes Migrate to Equator (Metaphase) A- c’comes pull Apart (Anaphase) T- Two new cells (T for 2, 2 for T, T for Telophase)

234. HEIRARCHY OF ORGANIZATION Atoms Molecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Your Body Entire Human Population

235. TISSUES Tissues are a group of cells that work together for a common function HISTOLOGY – the study of tissues Humans are made of 4 tissue types: 1 Epithelial 2 Connective 3 Muscular 4 Nervous

236. EPITHELIAL…1 st type The lining tissue Characteristics of epithelium: 1 Lots of cell to cell contact so they stick together  they can form large sheets Apical Basal2 Polarized: have a distinct Apical (top) & Basal (bottom) surfaces to them. 3 Have a BASAL LAMINA secreted by the epithelium that anchors the cell in place

237. TWO TYPES OF EPITHELIUM 1 Covering/Lining Epithelium 2 Glandular Epithelium

238. COVERING/LINING EPITHELIUM Covers the surface of the body & internal organs Forms lining inside blood vessels, digestive tract, respiratory, urinary & reproductive systems

239. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM Found in cells/glands of the endocrine system --makes hormones And in cells/glands of the exocrine system --secretes hormones Hormones- chemical messengers of the body

240. COVERING/LINING EPITHELIUM Composed of cell layers, many different cell shapes Shapes: (simple-as is, stratified- striped in layers) 1 Squamous 2 Cuboidal 3 Columnar 4 Transitional

241. SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM Squashed, flat in appearance Simple squamous: air sacs in the lungs, capillaries Stratified squamous: lining of the mouth, throat, & vagina

242. CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM Cube shaped Simple cuboidal: ovaries, blood vessels

243. COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM Column-shaped, tall & rectangular Simple columnar: lining of the digestive tract Pseudostratified (falsely layered) columnar: Appears layered but truly in not In upper respiratory tract (from the voice box & up)

244. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM Changes shape when the tissue stretches, like Spandex. Simple transitional: lining of bladder, uterus, urethra

245. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM Exocrine Glands Products empty directly onto body surfaces or into a body cavity EX-sweat, oil, salivary glands Endocrine Glands Products secrete directly from the cell (hormones) & must go into the blood stream EX- Pituitary, thyroid, sexual glands (gonads)

246. CONNECTIVE TISSUE…2 nd type Functions to support & hold the body together Commonly known as bone, cartilage, tendon, ligament, sinew, & blood

247. CONNECTIVE TISUUE CHARACTERISTICS 1 Cells are in a matrix (network) of protein fibers and “ground substance” EX- not much cell-cell contact, cells NOT polarized 2 Ground substance = liquid, solid, or gel 3 Fibroblasts & fibrocytes that produce the matrix fibers

248. QUICK TERMS Fibro- = filament, little thread -cyte = cell -blast = immature, young; usually associated with making things

249. 3 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1 Connective Tissue Proper 2 Fluid Connective Tissue 3 Supporting Connective Tissue

250. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER Connects cells & tissues together 2 Types of CTP 1. Loose Connective Tissue Proper 2. Dense Connective Tissue Proper

251. LOOSE CTP Consists of many cells in a matrix of a few loosely woven fibers EX- Adipose Tissue- fat tissue (adipose, lipid = fat) anchors skin to underlying tissues, supports the liver Areolar tissue—CT surrounding nipples (both sexes). [darker ring around the nipple is called the areola]

252. DENSE CTP Consists of fewer cells in a matrix of dense, tightly woven fibers EX- Dermis------------skin in general Ligaments--------holds bone to bone Tendons----------holds bone to MUSCLE

253. LIGAMENTS & TENDONS What is the difference? Think ABC order!.Ligament…Bone to bone.Tendon…...Muscle to bone

254. MOST COMMON CTs Patellar Ligament…from Kneecap to TIBIA* *(big shin bone) Achilles Tendon…calf muscle to CALCANEUS** **(heel bone) Who was Achilles?

255. ACL ACL = Anterior Cruciate Ligament ACL may be the best known ligament [Bone –Bone] ACL damage is a frequent sports injury to the knee This is why leg sweeps are illegal in football. ACL holds Femur (thigh bone) to Tibia in the knee

256. PATELLAR CTs Patella = kneecap Patellar Tendon (Rectus femoris muscle to kneecap) is ABOVE the knee. Patellar Ligament (kneecap to tibia) is BELOW the knee.

257. FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE Two Types 1 Blood 2 Lymph

258. BLOOD Made in the center of bones by Red Bone Marrow This process is called HEMATOPOIESIS Hemo(e)- or Hemato- = blood, -poiesis = forming Hematology is the study of blood & its diseases. Hemoglobin is blood pigment. Blood has 2 parts 1 Plasma………….....liquid……55% of blood 2 Formed elements….solid…….45% of blood

259. PLASMA Blood’s liquid matrix It is 92% water, 8% floating proteins

260. FORMED ELEMENTS These are solids…cells RBCs---Red Blood Cells * Called ERYTHROCYTES (erythro- = red) * Involved in gas exchange, swaps O 2 & CO 2 WBCs.---White Blood Cells * Called LEUKOCYTES [leuk(c)o- = white] * Fight germs, infection, part of immunity Platelets (thrombocytes)…(thrombo- = clot, lump) * Helps in blood clot formation (scabs)

261. LYMPH Basically it is dirty blood plasma that gets cleaned through filters called LYMPH NODES. Germs & debris from the blood plasma get collected in the lymph nodes. Trapped germs are eaten by the many WBCs that ambush them in the lymph nodes. When lymph nodes are clogged, infections occur. EX- tonsilitis

262. MAJOR LYMPH NODES Tonsils---in the throat Axillary---in the arm pits Cervical—in the lower neck Inguinal—in the crotch/thigh area Mammary—in the breasts of BOTH sexes Lumbar—in the lower back

263. MONONUCLEOSIS Called Mono or the Kissing Disease Sometimes germs reproduce so fast, that they overfill the nodes. The more germs there are in the body, the more are likely to get caught. Sometimes they overrun these filters & nodes swell. This explains the knots in the neck & armpits. In extreme cases, Mono causes back pain. WHY?

264. SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE Supports the weight of the body & body structures Two Types 1 Cartilage 2 Bone

265. CARTILAGE Chondro- = cartilage Ground substance is strong, but a bit gelatinous (gel) Lacks a direct blood supply (no blood vessels at all) Because of this, it heels slowly Has open spaces like a sponge So blood puddles & diffuses thru’ the spongy tissue

266. CARTILAGE CELLS Two Types of Cartilage Cells 1 Chondroblasts 2 Chondrocytes

267. CHONDROBLASTS The younger, immature cartilage cell These actually do the building of cartilage from the surrounding ground substance.

268. CHONDROCYTES The fully grown, mature chondroblasts The name changes as they age. These are the living tissue of cartilage This means these cells metabolize, grow, repair, & maintain the cartilage tissue. Chondroblasts build it, chondrocytes maintain it.

269. TYPES OF CARTILAGE Three Types 1 Hyaline 2 Elastic 3 Fibrocartilage (collagenous)

270. HYALINE Firm cartilage at the tips of long bones, in ribs, nose, & the trachea (windpipe) Almost too hard to pierce comfortably Rib rings? Its possible…

271. ELASTIC More flexible due to elastin fibers in the matrix Elastin is stretchy, just like synthetic elastic. Found in the pinna = outer ear This we can pierce somewhat comfortably.

272. FIBROCARTILAGE Few cells in a matrix of collagen fibers A collagen matrix is usually gelatinous Liquid collagen is used in plastic surgery EX- in cheeks, breasts, lips

273. FIBROCARTILAGE Collagen is shock absorbing menisci(meniscusCollagenous fibrocartilage forms disc-like pads called menisci (meniscus if singular) to absorb shock & stress in many joints. EX- *TMJ in the jaw. * Inside the knee. * The pubic symphysis. * Between most vertebrae in the spinal column

274. BONE Osteo- = bone, Osteology = study of bone Has a direct blood supply, many blood vessels & nerves Heals quite quickly Provides rigid structural support for protection & movement It is the 2 nd hardest substance in the body What is the #1 hardest substance in the body? WHY?

275. BONE CHARACTERISTICS Bone cells are similar to cartilage cells Two types 1 Osteoblasts 2 Osteocytes

276. OSTEOBLASTS Young, immature bone making cells Actually deposit Ca & P salts to make bone

277. OSTEOCYTES Mature, grown up osteoblasts Osteocytes are the living tissue, maintaning the bone tissue. Osteoblasts build bone, osteocytes maintain it.

278. FUNCTIONS OF BONE Five Functions 1 Support 2 Protection 3 Attachment 4 Hematopoiesis 5 Storage

279. SUPPORT Bones are the framework to which everything else is attached.

280. PROTECTION Bones protect many vital organs & structures Skull—protects the brain & pituitary gland Rib cage—protects the heart, lungs, liver & spleen Pelvis—protects/supports bladder, intestines, uterus, ovaries, & kidneys

281. ATTACHMENT Bones have special spikes, ridges, crests, dips, depressions, projections, & holes specially present for muscle attachment. The depressions are a perfect match for the bulges or belly of skeletal muscles that attach there. The deeper the dip, the stronger & larger the muscle EX- Compare cat leg bones to dinosaur leg bones

282. HEMATOPOIESIS Bone generates RBCs in red bone marrow See the slide titled “BLOOD”

283. STORAGE Bone stores fat in yellow bone marrow Bone stores many minerals in the form of salts Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) & calcium phosphate (CaPO 4 ) are the most abundant. PS……CaCO 3 is limestone!

284. BONE TYPES Two Types 1 Spongy bone 2 Compact bone

285. SPONGY BONE Less dense Found at the tips of long bones Site of hematopoiesis

286. COMPACT BONE Very dense, very hard Forms the outer collar or shell around most individual bones, spongy bone on the inside Site of some fat storage Also a site of hematopoiesis

287. BONE SHAPES Five Shapes 1 Long 2 Short 3 Flat 4 Irregular 5 Round (sesamoid)

288. LONG BONES Longer than they are wide EX- arm & leg bones

289. SHORT BONES Wider than they are long EX- wrist, ankle, & heel bones

290. FLAT BONES Very thin, usually curved EX- shoulder blades and cranial skull bones

291. IRREGULAR BONES Oddly shaped bones with many dips and projections EX- all vertebrae & the sphenoid bone

292. ROUND OR SESAMOID BONES Called sesamoid from the Greek term for “ sesame seed shaped” There are only 2 normally in the human body… The kneecaps (patellas) Sometimes extra bones form in sutures between the skull’s cranial bones that form sesamoids, but rarely ever larger than a pencil eraser around. Natural and harmless

293. TISSUE SUMMARY 1 Atoms-molecules-organelles-cells-tissues Tissues- many cells working together for 1 function 4 tissue types- epithelial,connective, muscle,nervous EPITHELIAL- Char:cell-cell contact, polarized, have basal lamina Types: covering/lining & glandular Layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified Shape: squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional

294. TISSUE SUMMARY 2 CONNECTIVE- Char: matrix of protein + ground substance, fibroblasts & fibrocytes Types: CT Proper (loose/dense) Fluid CT (blood/lymph) Supporting CT (cartilage/bone)

295. TISSUE SUMMARY 3 CARTILAGE- Char: gelatinous, rigid matrix; has chondroblasts,chondrocytes…No blood vessels Types: *Hyaline (collagen matrix) in the ribs, nose, trachea, joints *Elastic (elastin matrix) in the ear *Fibrocartilage (collagen matrix) between vertebrae

296. TISSUE SUMMARY 4 BONE- Char: hard, has blood vessels/nerves, osteoblasts,osteocytes Func: support, protection, attachment hematopoiesis (make RBCs), storage (Ca,P) Types: spongy & compact Shapes: long, short, flat, irregular, round (sesamoid)

297. MUSCULAR TISSUE…3 rd type Myo- = muscle, Myology = study of muscle Characteristics: Composed of muscle fibers that contract when stimulated.

298. 3 TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE 1 Striated 2 Cardiac 3 Smooth

299. STRIATED MUSCLE Also called skeletal or striped muscle It is voluntary muscle attached to the skeleton Moves the limbs for locomotion, maintains posture Has cylinder shaped cells with striated patterns ACTIN & MYOSINPatterns are made up of the protein filaments ACTIN & MYOSIN Fibers often run in the same direction, giving them a striped appearance, like wood grain. Each cell has several nuclei &multiple mitochondria

300. SMOOTH MUSCLE Found inside the walls of blood vessels, airways, stomach, intestines, bladder, & uterus Cells are spindle shaped Single nucleus per cell No visible striations here (that is why its smooth)

301. CARDIAC MUSCLE Found only in the heart Its Involuntary muscle Cells are shaped like branching cylinders (tree trunks) Has slight striations Only 1 nucleus per cell

302. CARDIAC MUSCLE The cells are next to each other are joined at thickened regions of their cell membranes These joints are called INTERCALATED DISCS They allow for rapid conduction of impulses It’s good to send nerve impulses quickly across the heart so that it contracts (beats) regularly & on time!

303. INTERCALATED DISCS picture

304. RECALL THE 4 TISSUE TYPES 1 Epithelial 2 Connective 3 Muscle 4 Nervous: brain, spinal cord, body nerves

305. NERVOUS TISSUE…4 th type Neuro- = nerves, Neurology = study of nerves Characteristics: Composed of 2 types of cells IMPULSES (chemo-electric messages)A) Neuron- basic nerve cells, actually conduct IMPULSES (chemo-electric messages) B) Neuroglia- cells that support/ help the neurons

306. NERVOUS TISSUE FUNCTIONS 1 Turn external information (input) into pulses EX- the 5 senses (light, sound, taste, smell, heat…) 2 Carry chemo-electric messages (impulses) between parts of the body

307. NEURONS Shapes vary, usually long & branched

308. NEURON STRUCTURES DENDRITE= input end of the neuron, it’s branched, treelike Carries impulses TOWARDS the cell body CELL BODY= main part of the neuron cell containing the nucleus & organelles AXON= output end of a neuron, a long extension of the cell body Conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body

309. NEURON DIAGRAM

310. REMEMBER THIS… Dendrite = Input (towards the cell body) Axons = Output (away from the cell body The I in dendrIte stands for Input, axOn = Output Axons Away!! A stands for Away

311. NEUROGLIAL CELLS Have many functions Some help the transmission of impulses Others insulate, protect, support, hold a blood supply to neurons Many types of neuroglia (we’ll see the details later)

312. TISSUES TO ORGANS ORGAN = a group of tissues working together for 1 common function They are usually composed of 2 or more tissues with specific functions

313. ORGAN CHARACTERISTICS All organs have these 4 things in common: 1 Parenchymal cells 2 Stroma 3 Nerve Supply 4 Blood Supply

314. PARENCHYMAL CELLS General term used to describe cells related to an organs major function EX- Enamel cells are the parenchyma of the teeth Acid-making cells are parenchyma of the stomach Can you think of another parenchyma of the stomach?

315. STROMA Stroma is the connective tissue that binds the tissues within an organ together & keeps organs separated from other nearby tissues Stroma holds the acid-making cells of the stomach to the smooth muscle of the stomach. Without stroma, the stomach would digest itself & its acids would soon spread to the other organs in the body, causing severe damage throughout.

316. BLOOD & NERVE SUPPLY All human organs require blood to bring in nutrients, oxygen, & ATP. Blood also removes wastes, carbon dioxide, & ADP (used, uncharged ATP). All human organs need a link to the nervous system to communicate with the brain & spinal cord & to respond accordingly.

317. ORGAN SYSTEMS An organ system is a group of organs working together for 1 common function EX- Digestive system Teeth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, intestines,etc. 1 function: to break down food & absorb nutrients The human body has 11 Organ Systems.

318. 11 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS 1 Integumentary 7 Urinary (Excretory) 2 Skeletal8 Reproductive 3 Muscular9 Nervous 4 Digestive10 Endocrine 5 Circulatory11 Immune* 6 Respiratory* an honorary system

319. INTEGUMENTARY---skin Largest organ system, organ, and tissue group in the human body Parts: Epidermis Dermis Their derivatives (hair, oil glands, nails,etc.)

320. INTEGUMENTAL FUNCTIONS 1 Protects the body from abrasions & cuts 2 Senses external environment (heat, cold, touch…) 3 Maintain body temperature 4 Immune functions (mostly blocks out dirt/germs) 5 Make vitamin D in the presence of sunlight 6 Excretion—sweat

321. SKELETAL Parts: Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments Functions: 1 Muscle attachment for locomotion 2 Protect vital organs 3 Stores calcium, phosphorus, & fat 4 Makes RBCs 5 Supports body weight

322. MUSCULAR Parts: Striated, Smooth, Cardiac Muscles Functions: 1 Body movement 2 Internal transport of fluid (peristalsis) EX- esophagus, large intestine 3 Makes heat

323. DIGESTIVE Parts: Teeth, Tongue, Salivary Glands, Esophagus, Stomach, Small & Large Intestines, Liver, Pancreas, and Gall Bladder Functions: 1 Physical & chemical breakdown of food 2 Uptake, store, & release nutrients

324. CIRCULATORY Parts: Heart, Blood, Lymph, Blood & Lymph Vessels, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Bone Marrow and Tonsils Functions: 1 Transport system for: A metabolism (food, waste, gases, heat) B immune system (antibodies, WBCs) C endocrine hormones (chemicals that stay inside) 2 Regulate pH (acid-base balance)

325. RESPIRATORY Parts: Nose Larynx—voice box Trachea—windpipe Bronchi—branches into the lungs Alveoli—air sacs in lungs (attached to capillaries) Lungs Functions: Gas exchange, pH balance

326. URINARY (EXCRETORY) Parts: Kidneys Ureters—pipes between kidneys & bladders Bladder—stores urine Urethra—pipe where urine exits the body Fuctions: 1 Balance of the internal environment 2 Blood thickness  pressure  pulse rate

327. REPRODUCTIVE Parts: Female-Ovaries, Oviduct (Fallopian Tubes) Uterus, Vagina Male-Testes, Prostrate, Penis Functions: 1 Make hormones 2 Make eggs & sperm (gametes) 3 Site of fetal development

328. NERVOUS Parts: Sensory organs (5 senses) Brain + Spinal cord (CNS) Somatic nerves (PNS)—[somatic = body] Functions: 1 Regulate & integrate body functions via nerves 2 Conduct impulses

329. ENDOCRINE Parts: Cells, organs, & glands that make hormones Function: Regulate & integrate body functions via hormones

330. IMMUNITY Fighting off germs & disease The immune system is really an honorary system It borrows from many other body systems

331. TRADITIONAL IMMUNITY WBCs—makes antibodies & actually eat germs, some spear them to death Antibodies—chemical agents designed to destroy specific germs, It is chemical warfare designed by WBCs Lymph—circulates/collects dirt, germs, & debris from ALL tissues Lymph nodes- filters the stuff collected/floating in fluid lymph Spleen- although WBCs are made in bone marrow, they gather & mature in the spleen

332. COOPERATIVE IMMUNITY Other immune functions are expressed throughout the body as physical or chemical barriers to prevent the entrance of invading pathogens.

333. INTEGUMENTAL IMMUNITY Skin provides a physical barrier between us & germs ACID MANTLE Has pH of 4.4-5.5 to deter bacterial growth acid mantleThis is called the acid mantle, slightly acidic due to the secretions of the sweat & oil glands Hairs also keeps germs out of parts of our body: EX- Eyelashes, eyebrows, nasal & pubic hair

334. SKELETAL IMMUNITY Hematopoiesis generates germ-eating & antibody-making WBCs

335. MUSCULAR IMMUNITY Maintains body temperature Muscular contractions generate heat EX- We shiver when it gets too cold outside. These involuntary contractions warm up the body Maintaining a relatively high body temperature keeps the body too warm to allow most bacteria to thrive inside the body.

336. NERVOUS IMMUNITY Some neuroglial cells specialize in fighting germs in the spinal cord.

337. THE 5 SENSES These are classified as part of the nervous system 1 Touch 2 Taste 3 Smell 4 Hear 5 Sight

338. EYES Eyebrows,eyelashes- physical barriers to dirt & germs Eyelids do the same THE ASIAN EYEFOLD— Flap of skin at the inner corner of the eye Its an example of immune human adaptation as Asian ancestors were nomadic people geographically plagued by sandstorms Tear glands wash dirt/germs out of the eye

339. EARS The ear canal open to the outside world twists & turns to prevent bugs from flying directly into the middle ear, THE BUG TRAP- Actual speed bump in the ear canal to keep bugs & foreign objects outside. Some ear canals are hairy to also prevent the entry of objects CERUMIN (ear wax) traps dirt by being sticky

340. DIGESTIVE IMMUNITY Mucous from nose & throat traps germs (flypaper) This mucous is periodically dumped into the stomach Germs trapped in the mucous are “burned alive” & destroyed in the stomach acid Many Ohioans experience this excessively during allergy season as Sinus Drainage This is natural, but excess is not.

341. RESPIRATORY IMMUNITY Mucous in the nose, mouth, throat, pharynx, trachea, & bronchi collect germs by their sticky surfaces. Mucous also warms the air we inhale, helping to kill off germ. This is why it is healthier to breathe through the nose rather than the mouth. Nasal hair also filters the air inhaled into the body Cilia lining the air passages do the same.

342. MALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY Reproductive body openings (orifices) are well protected. The Penal Orifice Has mucous lining Can completely close & seal shut Prepuce cartilage forms a physical barrier in front of the opening

343. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY The Vaginal Orifice Larger orifice lined by a double fleshy hood/lips Labia majora & the labia minora form this barrier Labia = lip, majora = greater, minora = lesser Labia majora is the outer lip, l. minora is the inner

344. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY Vagina is highly acidic to chemically destroy germs Acidic enough most times of the month to destroy sperm itself THIS IS NOT CONTACEPTION! Not all sperm will be destroyed upon entry Sperm travel in great numbers, outer ones protect the inner ones The HYMEN also forms a barrier to invaders

345. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY The Uterus This is the site of human development It must be protected to ensure healthy offspring It can form a protein barrier around itself to prevent the transmission of some types of germs between mother & fetus

346. THIS IS… Just a few of the stories in the ongoing saga of HUMAN BIOLOGY!!