1. Urine is one of the biological fluids that are responsible for the removal of toxic substances from the body. The normal quantity of urine that is usually passed daily varies widely from (700- 2500) ml depending on the fluid intake and weather. Normally, more urine is excreted during the day than during the night.

2.  A pathological increase in urine output is called (polyuria) in which urinary output becomes more than 2500 ml/day which occurs in:  1- Diabetes mellitus.  2- Diabetes insipidus.  3- Renal failure.

3.  A pathological decrease in the urine output is called (oliguria) in which urine output becomes less than 400 ml/day which occurs in:  1- Dehydration (diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, severe  haemorrhage).  2- Sudden lowering of blood pressure (hypotension).  3- Severe heart failure.

4.  I Physical examination  1- Colour  2- Appearance  3- Reaction (pH)  4- Specific gravity  II Biochemical examination  1- Glucose  2- Protein  3- Ketone bodies  4- Bilirubin and  III- Examination of Urinary Deposits

5.  I- Physical Examination  1. Colour  2. Appearance  Urochrome and uroerythrin are pigments which give normal urine its  characteristic colour (light yellow), small quantities of blood give urine a  smoky appearance with larger quantities makes it brownish or red.  Bile pigments cause the urine to appear brown with the production of  yellow froth when the urine is shaken in a test tube.  Drugs may also lead to discolouration of urine. Normal urine is quite  transparent when freshly passed but it may be opalescent from the  presence of various substances in suspension, of which the most  important are pus, bacteria, and phosphates.  Record the colour and appearance of your sample.

6.  3. Reaction  Normal urine is slightly acidic with pH range between (6-7).  With the help of pH paper, determine and record the approximate pH of the urine provided.

7.  Specific gravity  Fill a suitable sized cylinder with the urine then place a hydrometer in the fluid, taking care that it floats and does not touch the sides of the cylinder. The normal specific gravity of urine varies from 1.010-1.025.  Specific gravity of urine increases in case of dehydration, heavy proteinuria and glucosuria, and it decreased in case of diabetes insipidus.

8. CONSTITUENTS OF NORMAL URINE  Among the inorganic substances present are chlorides, phosphates,and sulphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.  1. Uric acid  This constituent of urine is derived partly from the metabolism of food  proteins and tissue proteins.

9.  2. Creatinine  It arises almost entirely from the breakdown of muscle creatine.  3. Ammonium salts

10. ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE  Glucose and reducing sugars  A sample of urine which reduces benedict reagent indicates the presence of reducing carbohydrate or substances. These substances are glucose, galactose, fructose, lactose, maltose, ascorbic acid (Vit C),acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) or homogentisic acid.  However a more specific & sensitive qualitative test for glucose is the clinistix method. It is specific for glucose. The reagent strip is dipped in the urine, and the colour of the test area is compared with the marker’s colour chart (10) seconds later.  Clinistix strip has a test area impregnated with a mixture of glucose  oxidase, peroxidase and chromogen system.

11. 2. protein If proteinuria is detected, the presence of Bence-Jones proteinuria should be suspected. This is confirmed by heating the urine sample to 50 C° and the formation of precipitate which disappears on boiling and reappears on cooling may indicate the presence of Bence Jones protein. This is an abnormal protein that is excreted in urine of patients with multiple myeloma.

12.  Ketone bodies  These are acetoacetic acid, B- hydroxybutyric acid and acetone.  They may appear in the urine of patients with:  1- Severe diabetes mellitus.  2- After starvation and prolonged vomiting.

13.  4. Bilirubin and urobilinogen  In health, bilirubin is not found in the urine. The finding of bilirubinuria in a jaundiced patient suggests that the jaundice is due to the appearance of conjugated bilirubin in the plasma which could be due to either hepatocellular damage or hepatic obstruction.