PSY 369: Psycholinguistics

PSY 369: Psycholinguistics
Language Comprehension: Compositional meaning

Embodiment in language
Embodied Representations Much of this work argues that language is embodied (e.g., Barsalou, 2008; Glenberg, 2008; Zwaan & Taylor, 2006) Perceptual and motor systems play a central role in language production and comprehension (and meaning/concepts) Words and sentences are usually grounded to perceptual, motoric, and emotional experiences. In absence of immediate sensory-motor referents, words and sentences refer to mental models or simulations of experience Brain activity Comprehension and images Concrete words Action words activate motor representations Words activate areas in the brain overlapping with those areas involved in perception and action. Understanding texts describing spatial situations activates visuospatial representations. Understanding concrete words activate visual representions of shape, orientation, etc. Understanding texts describing actions and movements, activates motoric representations. Understanding emotional texts activate emotional representations

Embodied Representations Simulation hypothesis (Gallese, 2008) Simulation exploits some of the same neural structures activated during performance, perception, imagining, memory… Language gives us enough information to simulate Processing (producing or comprehending) walk involves the use of representations involved in the act of walking Brain activity Comprehension and images Concrete words Action words activate motor representations Words activate areas in the brain overlapping with those areas involved in perception and action. Understanding texts describing spatial situations activates visuospatial representations. Understanding concrete words activate visual representions of shape, orientation, etc. Understanding texts describing actions and movements, activates motoric representations. Understanding emotional texts activate emotional representations producing or comprehending “walk”

Evidence for Embodied Representations Stanfied & Zwaan (2001) Presented participants with sentences John put the pencil in the cup. John put the pencil in the drawer See a picture and ask “does this describe what you read about?” Brain activity Comprehension and images Concrete words Action words activate motor representations Words activate areas in the brain overlapping with those areas involved in perception and action. Understanding texts describing spatial situations activates visuospatial representations. Understanding concrete words activate visual representions of shape, orientation, etc. Understanding texts describing actions and movements, activates motoric representations. Understanding emotional texts activate emotional representations Results: faster at saying horizontal pencil with drawer and vertical pencil with cup

Evidence for Embodied Representations Zwaan et al (2004) Presented participants with a sentence A: The pitcher hurled the softball at you. B: You hurled the softball at the pitcher. See two pictures and ask “are these pictures the same object” Brain activity Comprehension and images Concrete words Action words activate motor representations Words activate areas in the brain overlapping with those areas involved in perception and action. Understanding texts describing spatial situations activates visuospatial representations. Understanding concrete words activate visual representions of shape, orientation, etc. Understanding texts describing actions and movements, activates motoric representations. Understanding emotional texts activate emotional representations A B Results: faster at saying ‘Yes’ when sentence matched the pictures (e.g., sentence A and pictures in A, if the ball is small and then gets big, it is coming towards you)

Evidence for Embodied Representations Hauk et al (2004) Do action words activate the motor cortex? fMRI study 50 words from 3 semantic subcategories (words matched for freq, length, imageability, etc.) Rated for whether words reminded them of face, arm, or leg Brain activity Comprehension and images Concrete words Action words activate motor representations Words activate areas in the brain overlapping with those areas involved in perception and action. Understanding texts describing spatial situations activates visuospatial representations. Understanding concrete words activate visual representions of shape, orientation, etc. Understanding texts describing actions and movements, activates motoric representations. Understanding emotional texts activate emotional representations Movement Comparison: moved their foot, finger, or tongue

Evidence for Embodied Representations Hauk et al (2004) Do action words activate the motor cortex? fMRI study Brain activity Comprehension and images Concrete words Action words activate motor representations Words activate areas in the brain overlapping with those areas involved in perception and action. Understanding texts describing spatial situations activates visuospatial representations. Understanding concrete words activate visual representions of shape, orientation, etc. Understanding texts describing actions and movements, activates motoric representations. Understanding emotional texts activate emotional representations Action words did activate some of the same areas as the movements

Summing up Traditional Embodiment of Meaning Cognition = Computation
Representation by propositions Propositions are abstract relations Embodiment of Meaning Cognition is serving perception and actions Representation = Patterns of possible bodily interactions with the world (lawfully related to the world) What an object, event, sentence means for you, is what you can do with the object, event, sentence.

Meaning beyond the word
Move to compositional semantics Not all meaning resides at the level of the individual words. Conceptual combinations Meaning of Sentences Meaning across multiple sentences (texts & discourse)

Discourse Psycholinguistics
Traditional Psycholinguistics Determining what happens when we understand sentences Broader View How we resolve/understand sentences against the current discourse representation Sentence comprehension is a process that anchors the interpretation of the sentence to the representation of the prior text

Processing Discourse What is discourse?
The ways that we process (i.e., comprehend and remember) units of language larger than a sentence Lectures, personal narratives, expository discourse Units of analysis larger than a sentence Applies to both spoken and written forms Each situation has its own characteristics, the focus here is on some of the similarities across the different formats. Discourse processing is sort of like syntactic processing – a way of organizing/connecting the different pieces in to larger chunks. Here the chunks are larger than sentences.

Bill and Ted traveled through time and space.
Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.”

To whom does “him” refer?
Bill and Ted traveled through time and space. Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” To whom does “him” refer?

To whom does “him” refer? Bach
Bill and Ted traveled through time and space. Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” To whom does “him” refer? Bach

To whom does this “him” refer?
Bill and Ted traveled through time and space. Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” To whom does this “him” refer?

To whom does this “him” refer? Bach again
Bill and Ted traveled through time and space. Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” To whom does this “him” refer? Bach again

To whom does this “him” refer? Bach again
Bill and Ted traveled through time and space. Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” To whom does this “him” refer? Bach again Why not Abe?

Huh!? Bill and Ted traveled through time and space.
Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” Huh!?

Oh yeah, they’re time travelers.
Bill and Ted traveled through time and space. Bill asked, “Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store, but I haven’t found Abe yet. Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks!” “Excellent! Man, we’ve got to get these dudes back to school before we get there.” Huh!? Oh yeah, they’re time travelers.

Characteristics of Discourse
Local Structure (microstructure): The relationship between individual sentences Cohesion Coherence Global Structure (macrostructure): The relationship between the sentences and our knowledge of the world

Local Structure (microstructure): The relationship between individual sentences Cohesion Does the discourse “stick together”? Interpretation of one sentence depends on other sentences? Coherence Does the passage make sense? Logical consistency and semantic continuity?

Cohesion: Interpretation of one sentence depends on other sentences Referential Cohesion “Dude, you should hear him play…” Substitution Cohesion “We’ve got to get these dudes back to …” And many more Ellipsis, conjunction, lexical cohesion (See pg 362 of textbook for examples) The relationship between the referring expression and the antecedent create referential cohesion of discourse Reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, lexical (reiteration, synonym, hyponymy) Referring expression, “him” “these dudes” Antecedent, the thing that they refer to “Bach” “Bach and Abe” Consider the following: Lexical: There was only one adult in the room. The grownup felt isolated. Substitution: Jean was the only adult in the room. She hoped another one would show up. Ellipsis: Jean was the only adult in the room. She hoped another would show up.

Types of Referential Cohesion
Anaphoric Reference Using an expression to refer back to something previously mentioned in discourse “…Bach was in the music store …” “Dude, you should hear him play, he rocks.” Cataphoric Reference Using an expression to refer forward to something that is coming up in discourse Dude, did you find him?” “Yeah, Bach was in the music store...”

Comprehending Anaphoric References
Daneman and Carpenter (1980) Task: Reading a passage and answer questions about the referents of pronouns Sitting with Richie, Archie, Walter and the rest of my gang in the Grill yesterday, I began to feel uneasy. Robbie had put a dime in the juke box. It was blaring one of the latest “Rock and Roll” favorites. I was studying, in horror, the reactions of my friends to the music. I was especially perturbed by the expression on my best friend’s face. Wayne looked intense and was pounding the table furiously to the beat. Now, I like most of the things other teenage boys like. I like girls with soft blonde hair, girls with dark curly hair, in fact all girls. I like milkshakes, football games and beach parties. I like denim jeans, fancy T-shirts and sneakers. It is not that I dislike rock music but I think it is supposed to be fun and not taken too seriously. And here he was, “all shook up” and serious over the crazy music. Question: Who was “all shook up” and serious over the music?

Daneman and Carpenter (1980) Task: Reading a passage and answer questions about the referents of pronouns Sitting with Richie, Archie, Walter and the rest of my gang in the Grill yesterday, I began to feel uneasy. Robbie had put a dime in the juke box. It was blaring one of the latest “Rock and Roll” favorites. I was studying, in horror, the reactions of my friends to the music. I was especially perturbed by the expression on my best friend’s face. Wayne looked intense and was pounding the table furiously to the beat. Now, I like most of the things other teenage boys like. I like girls with soft blonde hair, girls with dark curly hair, in fact all girls. I like milkshakes, football games and beach parties. I like denim jeans, fancy T-shirts and sneakers. It is not that I dislike rock music but I think it is supposed to be fun and not taken too seriously. And here he was, “all shook up” and serious over the crazy music. Question: Who was “all shook up” and serious over the music? Reading Span Test Smaller reading spans = smaller working memory capacity Manipulated how many sentences intervened between the pronoun ‘he’ and the antecedent ‘Wayne’

Daneman and Carpenter (1980) Conclusions: The number of intervening sentences don’t matter for high span people, but does for low span Results

Arnold, Eisenband, Brown-Schmidt, and Trueswell (2000) “Donald is bringing some mail to Mickey (or Minnie) while a violent storm is beginning. He’s (or She’s) carrying an umbrella, and it looks like they’re both going to need it.” Measured where/what participants looked at while listening to the sentence. Compared two types of cues: Gender Accessibility (first mentioned things highly accessible) Results Both Gender and accessibility were used to resolve the referential ambiguity

Local Structure (microstructure): The relationship between individual sentences Cohesion Does the discourse “stick together”? Interpretation of one sentence depends on other sentences? Coherence Does the passage make sense? Logical consistency and semantic continuity?

Coherence: Given/new distinction Readers expect speakers to provide cues as to what information is old (already known by the listener) and what is new (not known) Making Inferences Filling in missing pieces of information to maintain coherence Haviland and Clark (1974) Singer, Halldorson, Lear, & Andrusiak (1992)

Developing coherence Haviland and Clark (1974)
Process of understanding a sentence in discourse context involves 3 stages: Identify the given and new info in the current sentence Find an antecedent in memory for the given information Attach the new information to this spot in memory

Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence. We got some beer out of the trunk. The beer was warm.

Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence. We got some beer out of the trunk. The beer was warm. Definite article “The” signals that “The beer” is given information

Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence. We got some beer out of the trunk. The beer was warm. Definite article “The” signals that “The beer” is given information Connect the new information “was warm” to the appropriate discourse concept “some beer” This process is called Direct Matching

Developing coherence Haviland and Clark (1974) World knowledge
Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence. We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm. Definite article “The” signals that “The beer” is given information Connect the new information “was warm” to the appropriate discourse concept “??”

Developing coherence Haviland and Clark (1974) World knowledge
Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence. We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm. Definite article “The” signals that “The beer” is given information Connect the new information “was warm” to the appropriate discourse concept “picnic supplies” Need a bridging inference to connect “the warm beer” to “picnic supplies”

Developing coherence Haviland and Clark (1974) Typical results
Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence. Conclusion: If you don’t know the old information and need to make an inference, this may slow down comprehension. Typical results Direct Matching We got some beer out of the trunk. The beer was warm. Comprehended faster Takes more time Bridging Inference We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm. World knowledge

Developing coherence Singer, Halldorson, Lear, & Andrusiak (1992)
Task: Press a button when you understand the sentence, if given a question, answer Yes or No. Conclusions: Suggests that the bridging inference was made More time consuming to make coherence of temporal than causal relations Results Causal condition Requires bridging inference “Murray poured water on the fire.” “The fire went out.” Faster reading time T/F “water extinguishes fire” Faster “T” Temporal condition No required inference “Murray drank a glass of water.” “The fire went out.” T/F “Does water extinguish fire?”

Brief summary Local Structure (microstructure):
Discourse is coherent if its elements are easily related. Coherence is achieved with cohesive ties between sentences. Comprehension is impeded when There are no antecedents, forcing a bridging inference The antecedent was not recent, forcing a reinstatement of the antecedent.

Local Structure (microstructure): The relationship between individual sentences Coherence Cohesion Global Structure (macrostructure): The relationship between the sentences and our knowledge of the world

Global Structure (macrostructure): The relationship between the sentences and our knowledge of the world Jill bought a new sweater. Sweaters are sometimes made of wool. Wool production gives some farmers a good livelihood. Farming is a high-risk business. On the news last night, I saw a group of business executives discussing recent trends in the stock market. Okay local structure, but each sentence isn’t relevant to an overall topic of discourse

Global Structure (macrostructure): Schemas (Scripts) General knowledge structures for common social situations Genres Narrative structure Story grammars - extension of idea of grammatical rules, specify the organization of a story Expository structure Different structures

Effects of world knowledge
If the balloons popped, the sound would not be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong. Bransford & Johnson (1972)

Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him most was being held, especially since the charges against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong but he thought he could break it. He knew, however, that his timing would have to be perfect. Prison escape OR Wrestling match Anderson et al (1977)

Schemas (Scripts) Mental structures of how the world works, acquired through experience A whole package of information about what we know about the world and events Generic story of situations A framework with causal information Used to facilitate comprehension of discourse, as well as to guide recall (and reconstruction)

Schemas (Scripts) Generic story of situations Restaurant Script Go inside Go to table Sit down Scene 1: Enter Scene 2: Order Get menu Read menu Choose food Give order Scene 3: Eat Get food Eat food Scene 4: Pay Ask for check Received check Tip waiter Pay check Exit

Bartlett (1932) Task: Read native American folk tale Write down everything that you can remember from that story that I read earlier Bartlett had them recall after a longer periods of time (between 15 mins. Up to 10 years later)

Bartlett (1932) Results: Participants’ memories changed to fit their existing beliefs (reconstructive memories) Added new details Changed details Deleted details Conclusions: We use our Schema to facilitate comprehension of discourse, as well as to guide recall (and reconstruction)

Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) Read two European tales (cry wolf & stone soup) 2 audiences European North American children Ponam children (New Guinea) Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) similar study, gave to individuals from different cultures, the memory distortions reflected their own cultures (e.g.., misremembered names were either more European or New Guinean depending on the culture of the recaller)

Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) Retelling of boy who cried wolf Ponam children (New Guinea) Once upon a time Kalai and his family they lived on an island. Kalai’s mother always carried him everywhere. One day Kalai’s mother and father went out fishing. Kalai’s mother said, “Kalai, you are too small to go out fishing in the sea. You should stay home with your grandfather.” Kalai was lonely on the beach. Kalai said, “How could I get my family home?” He sat down and decided to get his family home. He got his red laplap and ran down to the beach and waved his laplap to his family and said, “Fire, fire.” His brother saw his laplap and went home. When they arrived they saw nothing. Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) similar study, gave to individuals from different cultures, the memory distortions reflected their own cultures (e.g.., misremembered names were either more European or New Guinean depending on the culture of the recaller)

Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) Retelling of boy who cried wolf European North American children Kalai was running up and down the beach yelling “Fire, fire.” Everybody came home. The next day the same thing happened. They came home. The next day came, but the house caught on fire. He ran up and down the beach, but nobody came. Kalai kept waving the flag. Nobody came. Suddenly they saw the flames and the smoke and they came, but it was too late. Everything had burnt down to the ground, and his brother told him if he kept telling lies that nobody will come when you call for help. Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) similar study, gave to individuals from different cultures, the memory distortions reflected their own cultures (e.g.., misremembered names were either more European or New Guinean depending on the culture of the recaller)

Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) Impact of different schemata European North American children Setting, precipitating events, goal reaching aspects, story resolutions Ponam children (New Guinea) Recalled factual detail about settings, events, and outcomes, but leaving out things like consequence, resolution, moral (generally seemed to miss the point) Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) similar study, gave to individuals from different cultures, the memory distortions reflected their own cultures (e.g.., misremembered names were either more European or New Guinean depending on the culture of the recaller) Conclusions: We use our cultural schemas to facilitate comprehension of discourse, as well as to guide recall

When do we use the schema? During comprehension or recall? Smith and Swinney (1992) Task: presented stories (like the “balloons” one) Collected sentence by sentence reading times Had them recall the sentences Some people were given a title for the story, others not Invernizzi & Abouzeid (1995) similar study, gave to individuals from different cultures, the memory distortions reflected their own cultures (e.g.., misremembered names were either more European or New Guinean depending on the culture of the recaller) Results: Overall, reading times were faster with a title that without Stories with titles: More words were recalled and more “intrusions” (details consistent with the schema but not in the story) Conclusions: Schemas are used in both on-line comprehension and recall

Summary We use schemas to Facilitate the comprehension of discourse To guide recall (and reconstruction)

Effects of Genre Not all kinds of discourse follow the same structure
Different effects, purposes, etc. Expository discourse Convey info about a subject (e.g., textbook, lecture) Narrative discourse Tell a story: Introduce characters & settings, establish a goal, etc. APA style Newspaper articles

Expository Structure Reading texts, listening to lectures, etc.
Organized with different relationships (but can still draw a tree structure) Relationships Collection - ideas or events related on the basis of some commonality Causation - ideas are joined causally so that one idea is identified as the antecedent and another as the consequence Response - ideas are joined in a problem/solution or question/answer relationship Comparison - ideas are related by pointing out similarities and differences Description - general ideas are explained by giving attributes or other specific details

Narrative structure Once there was a woman. She saw a tiger’s
cave. She wanted a tiger’s whisker. She put food in front of the cave. The tiger came out. She pulled out a whisker. The story has a structure, a story grammar

Narrative structure Story grammar - can depict with a tree structure
Setting Episode Once there was a woman. Event Reaction Goal Overt Response She saw a tiger’s cave. Action Consequence She wanted a tiger’s whisker. Event She put food in front of the cave. The tiger came out. She pulled out a whisker.

Narrative structure Thorndyke (1977) Read more slowly but are better
Level effect Read more slowly but are better remembered. High hierarchy statements Lower in the hierarchy. Comprehensibility and recall were tied to inherent plot structure, independent of passage content She wanted a tiger’s whisker. The tiger came out.

Trabasso & Suh (1993) Test to see if structure effects whether inferences are made Task: Think aloud task Read through the story aloud (one sentence at a time) and talk aloud about their understanding of that sentence

Trabasso & Suh (1993) Sequential version Hierarchical version
Once there was a girl named Betty. One day, Betty found that her mother’s birthday was coming soon. Betty really wanted to give her mother a present. Betty went to the department store. How does this sentence connect up with the rest of the story? Betty found a pretty purse. Betty bought the purse. Her mother was very happy. Betty found that everything was too expensive. Betty could not buy anything. Betty felt sorry. Several days later, Betty saw her friend knitting. Betty was good at knitting. Betty decided to knit a sweater. Betty selected a pattern from a magazine. Betty followed the instructions in the article. Finally, Betty finished a beautiful sweater. Betty pressed the sweater. Betty folded the sweater carefully. Betty put it in the closet for the next time she was going out. Berry was very happy. Betty gave the sweater to her mother. Her mother was excited when she saw the present.

Trabasso & Suh (1993) Hierarchical version S = Setting E = Event
Once there was a girl named Betty. One day, Betty found that her mother’s birthday was coming soon. Betty really wanted to give her mother a present. Betty went to the department store. Betty found that everything was too expensive. Betty could not buy anything. Betty felt sorry. Several days later, Betty saw her friend knitting. S Betty was good at knitting. Betty decided to knit a sweater. Betty selected a pattern from a magazine. Betty followed the instructions in the article. Finally, Betty finished a beautiful sweater. Betty pressed the sweater. Betty folded the sweater carefully. Betty gave the sweater to her mother. Her mother was excited when she saw the present. E G A G A A O O A O A R O E R S = Setting E = Event R = Reaction G = Goal O = Overt Response A = Action

Trabasso & Suh (1993) Hierarchical version
Once there was a girl named Betty. One day, Betty found that her mother’s birthday was coming soon. Betty really wanted to give her mother a present. Betty went to the department store. Betty found that everything was too expensive. Betty could not buy anything. Betty felt sorry. Several days later, Betty saw her friend knitting. S Betty was good at knitting. Betty decided to knit a sweater. Betty selected a pattern from a magazine. Betty followed the instructions in the article. Finally, Betty finished a beautiful sweater. Betty pressed the sweater. Betty folded the sweater carefully. Betty gave the sweater to her mother. Her mother was excited when she saw the present. E G A G A A O O A O A R O E R Is a superordinate goal that motivates the subgoal of the next episode S E G A O O R A A O R E S G A A O

Trabasso & Suh (1993) Sequential version
Once there was a girl named Betty. One day, Betty found that her mother’s birthday was coming soon. Betty really wanted to give her mother a present. Betty went to the department store. Betty found a pretty purse. Betty bought the purse. Her mother was very happy. Several days later, Betty saw her friend knitting. S Betty was good at knitting. Betty decided to knit a sweater. Betty selected a pattern from a magazine. Betty followed the instructions in the article. Finally, Betty finished a beautiful sweater. Betty pressed the sweater. Betty folded the sweater carefully. Betty put it in the closet for the next time she was going out. Berry was very happy. E G A G A A O O A O A R O E R The goal is already filled, so not related to the subgoal of the next episode S E G A O O R E S G A A O A A O

Trabasso & Suh (1993) Results In a think aloud task
participants mentioned the superordinate goal in the hierarchical condition but not the sequential condition Story grammar structure matters Strongly support the hypothesis that readers do make global causal connections during reading.

Discourse in memory Daily Summary: Weekly summary:
Schemas are used to structure comprehension and memory Discourses have internal structures that impact comprehension and memory Weekly summary: Evidence supports the psychological reality of a number of different representations Propositions & propositional networks Embodied representations Inferences Schemata and scripts Situation models

PSY 369: Psycholinguistics

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