1. An International Perspective on Student Representation Manja Klemenčič Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences Harvard University African Minds Symposium and Authors’ Workshop “Student representation in Higher Education Governance in Africa” Capetown, South Africa, 21 August 2014

2. I Definitions - student representative associations - differences between student representation, student activism, student movements II Student representation on national/regional level in democracies - a typology of national student associations - a typology of national systems of student representation - a typology of national systems of student interest intermediation III Student representation in institutional governance - a typology of student representative bodies within higher education institutions - a typology of institutional systems of student representation - autonomy of student representative associations - legitimacy of student representative associations IV Theories of change of student representation in higher education governance Topics addressed

3. Student representative associations – student unions, councils, guilds, bodies, parliaments, governments – are those whose primary aim is to represent and defend the interests of the collective student body. They organize, aggregate and intermediate student interests, provide services for students and organize student activities. They operate on different levels of HE governance: from the sub-institutional, institutional, regional, national to supranational level. Why we study them? - students the primary constituency in HE, crucial for understanding HE governance (Luescher-Mamashela 2013; Klemenčič 2012) - historical presence and extensive activity (Klemenčič 2012; 2014) - interest groups crucial to understanding functioning of advanced democracies (Eising 2008) - the role of interest groups in policy processes increasing (Falkner 2000; Beyers et al. 2008) I Definition of student representative associations

4. Student representation – student membership in collective organizations within higher education institutions and national systems, organized for the purpose of representing the interests of students; formal and typically institutionalized form of student organizing. Student activism – student mobilization in protests or other social movements with a particular grievance of student, higher education or broader societal relevance; participation of individual students, groups of students and/or student organisations in a group action which is typically loose, non-hierarchical and not institutionalized. Student movement – is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of students, to represent student interests and campaign for better study conditions and social welfare conditions of students. I Differentiating between between student representation, student activism and student movements

5. 1. How students as collective body are organised at the level of national higher education governance, i.e. in relation to the government, parliament and higher education stakeholders? – a spectrum between two ideal organizational types of national (regional) student associations 2. How student interests are aggregated, articulated and intermediated into public policy making? – different types of national systems of student representation and national systems of student interest intermediation 3. How can we explain change in organisations and systems of student representation at national level? II Student Representation on the National (and/or Regional) Level

6. A TYPOLOGY OF NATIONAL STUDENT ASSOCIATIONS A S SOCIAL MOVEMENT ORGANISATIONS A S INTEREST GROUPS Organisational structure Network-like; loosely integrated; limited functional differentiation Hierarchically ordered with strong centralised coordination; highly functionally differentiated Internal Resources Fluctuating administrative funding; volunteers Secure administrative funding; professionalised administration Political agenda Transversal: next to sectorial also a strong focus on broader political issues Predominantly sectorial: organisation, substance and processes of HE and student welfare Mode of action Non-institutionalised forms of claim- making: protests, boycotts, campaigns Lobbying and political advocacy, provide services Outputs Mobilisation capacity, expertise and information Representativeness, expertise and information, implementation capacity Examples from Africa ??? 6

7. A TYPOLOGY OF NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF STUDENT REPRESENTATION IN DEMOCRACIES N EO - CORPORATIST P LURALIST Number of intermediary associations Limited: possibly functionally complementary or territorially differentiated Unspecified: identical functions are performed by several in competition; domains of action are decided without regard to other associations; no association can exercise hierarchical control over others Relationship to the state Formally or informally grants monopoly of student interest intermediation. Often accompanied with secure administrative funding. No association has monopoly of intermediation. Administrative and funding arrangement can exist, but on a competitive basis. 7

8. A TYPOLOGY OF NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF STUDENT INTEREST INTERMEDIATION IN DEMOCRACIES F ORMALISED I NFORMAL Relational structures to public authorities Stipulated in legislation: Institutionalised representational structures (e.g. within HE Council or accreditation body); written rules governing consultation procedures or meetings with the Ministry Informal, ad hoc or needs-based practices: informal consultations and seminars; representation on non-permanent working groups; informal contacts with Ministry officials, members of Parliament, agencies or committees Role in policy processes Decisive co-actorsExternal pressure group, experts 8

9. A TYPOLOGY OF NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF STUDENT REPRESENTATION AND STUDENT INTEREST INTERMEDIATION IN A FRICA C ORPORATIST N EO - CORPORATIST P LURALIST S TATIST ??? FORMALI ZED INFORMAL FORMALI ZED INFORMAL ??? 9

10. 1. How are students organised into representative student bodies in higher education institutions? 2. How are student representatives involved in institutional governance? 3. How autonomous are student representative bodies at higher education institutions? Are student representative bodies perceived legitimate? 4. How can we explain change in organisations and systems of student representation within university governance? III Student Representation in Institutional Governance

11. A TYPOLOGY OF STUDENT REPRESENTATIVE BODIES WITHIN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS U NION - TYPE C OUNCIL - TYPE Legal status Independent legal entity Integrated into institutional governance structure Organisationa l resources Paid employees and elected officials (volunteers) Elected officials (volunteers) Membership Automatic, mandatory or voluntary Funding Membership fees, government grants and other external funding sources From institutional budget (membership fees), but limited access to external funding Political agenda Student social welfare; organisation, substance and processes of higher education; and student life Organisation, substance and processes of higher education; student welfare; and student life Mode of action Student services and facilities; co-determinism and consultation Co-determinism (Mitbestimmung), consultation, student services 11

12. A TYPOLOGY OF SYSTEMS OF STUDENT REPRESENTATION IN INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE C ODETERMINATION (M ITBESTIMMUNG ) C ONSULTATION Representational structures in institutional governance Students are represented in key governing bodies (senate, board of overseers, etc.), at different levels of institutional governance. Institutionalised representational structures and rules governing participation of student representatives in decision- making are stipulated in legislation and/or statutory documents. Informal, ad hoc or needs-based practices of consulting student representatives: informal consultations and seminars; representation on ad hoc working groups or committees. Structures and rules governing consultation procedures may be stipulated in legislation and/or statutory documents or such provisions are absent and depend on informal arrangements. Role in decision- making Voting rights (a proportion of all voting members) on all or some decision issues. A right to observe, comment, provide input, but no voting rights. Student representatives Student representatives comes from the one recognized student representational body. Student consultants come from representative student body or other student groups (e.g. sectorial organisations, such as AIESEC). 12

13. A UTONOMY OF REPRESENTATIVE STUDENT ASSOCIATIONS D ECISION - MAKING COMPETENCES ( ABILITY TO ACT ) I NDEPENDENCE ( FREEDOM FROM CONSTRAINTS ) Policy autonomy: ability to decide on own political and professional agenda. Legal autonomy: legal status of the body/organisation. Governance autonomy: ability to decide on internal structures and processes. Financial autonomy: dependency on funding from the higher education institution (or government); access to external funding sources; membership fee regime. Managerial autonomy: discretion over financial matters, hiring personnel and other resources (e.g. facilities). Symbolic autonomy: dependency on (for acquiring symbolic capital/positional goods) or close ties to political parties, trade unions, etc. 13

14. L EGITIMACY OF REPRESENTATIVE STUDENT ASSOCIATIONS I NTERNAL LEGITIMACY As student association’s worthiness to be recognized as a representative structure of students by the students (i.e. the student body) of the higher education institution [or in case of national associations by students within national higher education systems]. E XTERNAL LEGITIMACY As student association’s worthiness to be recognized as a representative structure of students by the (governing and managerial representatives of the) higher education institution and other stakeholders [or in the case of national associations by public authorities and other national-level stakeholders]. Focus Perceived ability to represent effectively and truthfully student interests and foster student interests in relation to the institutional leadership, public authorities and other stakeholders. Perceived ability to competently engage in decision processes and perform representational functions. Criteria Good governance, structural and procedural democracy, openness to all students, symbolic autonomy, expertize, trustworthiness. Representativity, good governance, expertize, efficiency, professionalism, constructiveness. 14

15. What changes: - organizational culture, structures, practices (professionalisation) - systems of student representation and interest intermediation - influence on decision making (positional power, symbolic capital, …) Theoretical frameworks for studying change in student representation: - Rationalist: interested actors take advantage of changing opportunity structures and follow resource dependencies (resource dependency theory) - Constructivist: socialisation and social learning - Neo-institutionalist: structural embeddedness in existing institutions, practices and traditions mediates and conditions the impact of external drivers - Cultural: power relations, attitudes to authority, public attitudes to students - Diffusion: diffusion of ideas through international collaboration, developmental aid, the role of supranational structures and processes, international organisations, donor agencies IV Theories of change

16. Thank you! Contact: manjaklemencic@fas.harvard.edumanjaklemencic@fas.harvard.edu References: KLEMENČIČ, M. (2014). Student power in a global perspective and contemporary trends in student organising. Studies in Higher Education 39(3) 2014: 396-411. KLEMENČIČ, M. (2012). Student Representation in Western Europe: introduction to the special issue. European Journal of Higher Education 2(1) 2012: 2-19.