1. Chapters 2 and 3: Processes of Science
Reading Assignment
Chapter 2 and 3 in Teaching Science to Every Child: Using Culture as a Starting Point

2. Benefits of Process Skills
Students develop “sense-making” tools and become more independent learners.
English language learners have the opportunity to practice communication in the context of actual science activities.
Students have an opportunity to experience the social aspect of of the professional scientific community as they work with materials and ideas.
Students natural curiosity is supported.

3. Science Process Skills
Basic Process Skills
Observing - process of gathering information using all appropriate senses and instruments that extend the senses. Based on empirical process without regard to inferences or theories. Observations are the primary way that children obtain information. 
Observations are always based on prior knowledge. They depend on the relevant knowledge and ideas that a scientist brings to the situation. 
Inferring - making an interpretation of observations that is based on prior knowledge and experiences.
Classifying – process of organizing objects into groups on observable properties.  

4. Basic Process Skills (continued)
Measuring - quantifying variables using a variety of instruments (rulers, graduated cylinders, balances, stop watches, thermometers, etc.) and standard and non standard units. 
Estimating – judging an approximate amount or value. An estimate is not based on a direct measure.  
Predicting - make a forecast of a possible outcome of an investigation based on known.
Predictions look forward to what might happen. Inferences look backward and are types of explanations of what has already happened. Tables and graphs provide the basis for predictions about data points not yet measured
Communicating - using language (spoken, written and symbolic) to express their thoughts in ways that others can understand.  

5. Observing and Inferring Who do you see – An Old Lady or a Young Lady?
Both explanations are based on the same observations; only the inference is different. When children realize that multiple inferences are possible to explain an observation, they begin to acknowledge the inferences that others generate and become more open-minded in scientific discussions.

6. Another Example - Animal Tracks in the Snow
The best inference is the one that explains the most observations. However, inferences can be replaced by newer and better explanations. John Dewey said that the transition from observations to inferences is “peculiarly exposed to error.” He identified possible causes of errors (i.e., previous experience, self-promotion, strong opinions, false expectations, and laziness).
For example: Have students make a list of statements about the animal tracks. Help the students differentiate between the observations and the inferences.

7. Guidelines for Classifying
1. Organize objects or events based on properties that can be observed.
2. Divide the objects into only two groups that are specific enough to avoid the danger of some objects being classifies in two groups. Which of these Venn diagrams would meet this guideline?
3. Each object should be in its own group for the classification
to be complete.

8. Applying Guideline 3 One way to classify each of the 13 shapes below, would be to divide the objects into 3 groups. Applying guideline 3 would be too difficult for kindergartners.

9. Classifying with Dichotomous Keys
The most common way to create a classification system is dichotomous key.
These are a series of paired statements, which identify the organism through a process of elimination.
Each pair of statements consists of “either or,” or comparison statements.
The first statements are more general while the following pairs of statements are more specific.
Organisms are identified as their characteristics are traced through the paired statements in the dichotomous key.
Elementary level students should be introduced to classification. The NC Course of Study has several standards on classification for different grade levels. A common activity is to have students develop a way to classify buttons or beans. My students enjoyed classifying their shoes. I have attached a few activities that you may like to incorporate in your teaching. These include jellybean classification using the dichotomous key, Who are the ferrets more related to? (phyla, classes, families, genus and species), Classifying the characters in Finding Nemo, Classifying fictitious cubbels, and real animals. Share any classification activities with your discussion group.

10. Constructing Dichotomous Keys
As an example, we could construct a key using the following stationary supplies taken from a student's pencil case.

11. Classifying with Tree Diagrams
A tree diagram is essentially the same as a dichotomous key.
Look at the optional activity on “Classifying Real Organisms.” This activity on classifying shows how both the dichotomous key and the tree diagram can be used to identify different marine life.

12. Measuring
quantifying variables using a variety of instruments (rulers, graduated cylinders, balances, stop watches, thermometers, etc.) and standard and non standard units. 
This equipment is part of the Science Activities for the Visually Impaired/Science Enrichment for Learners with Physical Handicaps.

13. Predicting and the Benefits of Making Mistakes
Jean Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.
Albert Einstein called Piaget’s discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it.“
Piaget’s theory revolves around Equilibration where experience (external and internal) can create dilemmas and mental conflict; learner is biologically driven to regain equilibrium.

14. Assimilation occurs when a learner incorporates new information into our existing mental frameworks.
Accommodation occurs when a learner encounters new ideas that cause him or her to rearrange existing mental frameworks.
As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).
Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

15. The Importance of Communicating as Science Process Skill
Vygotsky claimed that “before a person can internalize knowledge, he or she must first share that idea with others.” (Social Constructivism)
Communication reinforces the social dimensions of the culture of science and helps students socially construct knowledge.
Especially helpful to students from different cultures who are learning English.

16. Communicating and Science Teaching
Would reading a story, creating a poster, presenting a skit, etc. be science? – not automatically… Another process skill needs to be involved, a science concept, for example.
Teachers should connect communicating with another science process skill.
Students must be using science process skills for us to claim that they are doing science.
Teachers must reflect on their own science teaching to make sure that the students are really doing science.

17. Learning Styles?
Learning styles – based on the reading Point-Counterpoint on pp. 70 – 73. – How do you feel about using learning styles with diverse learners?
There are several surveys online. I personally like Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence work on the 8 intelligences.
Linguistic ,Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Bodily kinesthetic, Musical, Inter-personal, Intra-personal, Naturalist
Gardner, Howard

18. Process Skills With ELL’s
Different terms have been used to describe or characterize children whose second language is English. For example, students with Limited English Proficiency (LEPs), students for whom English is a Second Language (ESLs), or Second Language Learners (SLLs). Currently educators refer to these children as English Language Learners (ELLs).
Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE) – Five Principles for Effective Pedagogy
1. Joint Productive Activity: Teacher and Students Producing Together
2. Developing Language and Literacy Across the Curriculum
3. Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives
4. Teaching Complex Thinking
5. Teaching Through Conversations
See Table 3.1 for ideas on how to promote “joint productive activities,” which seem work well when teaching ELL’s as well as all students.

19. Process Skills and Science Standards
Process skills – first a substantial feature of elementary and middle school science – after 1957 Russian launch of Sputnik threat to America’s scientific, educational, and military superiority.
The NSES place more emphasis on integrating the science process skills with content learning. See Table 3.2.

20. The Scientific Worldview
The 6 process skills, components of the culture of science, provide all children with access to the scientific worldview.
Basically, students are utilizing the Scientific Method
Define the problem
Gather information
State your hypothesis
Test your hypothesis
Form your conclusion
Publish your results

21. Science Process Skills
Integrated Process Skills (Grades 3 and higher)
Integrated skills require students to think at a higher level. Several basic skills are combined to solve problems.
Identifying and controlling variables -
Manipulated variable (independent variable) – variable that the experimenter changes
Responding variable (dependent variable) – variable that changes in response to changes in the manipulated variable.
Controlled Variables or constants – variables that are kept constant or unchanged.
Forming hypotheses - stating a possible cause and effect relationship in nature that might be found through investigations.
Experimenting - Designing and Conducting Controlled Investigations
deliberately changing one variable at a time
observing the effect on another variable while holding all other variables constant
Graphing - Converting measurements into a diagram to show the relationship between the measures.
Interpreting data - Collecting observations and measurement (data) in an organized way and drawing conclusions from the information obtained by reading tables, graphs, and diagrams.
Forming models - Creating an abstract (mental) or concrete (physical) illustration of an object or event.
Investigating - Requires using observations, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions to solve a problem.