1. GROUNDWATER Water cycle, water budget, water table, wells, formations and characteristics of groundwater

2. Where is the world’s water? 97% of Earth’s water is ocean Less than 3% is freshwater (1/2 % is usable) –more than 2/3 is locked in ice –a small percent of it flows on land –100 times that much in lakes and swamps as in rivers –50 times as much in groundwater as in lakes and rivers combined

3. Water Cycle Hydrosphere: the water of Earth’s surface Water cycle: movement of water around the hydrosphere –E from sunlight causes evaporation (and transpiration)  vapor rises, cools and causes condensation  when water falls to surface it is precipitation –excess precipitation = Runoff- the movement of water across the surface

4. Runoff affected by the: –amount of rain –the shape of the land (steep = more flatter = less) –surface material (harder, well-cemented rocks = more, looser, softer, porous rocks = less) – vegetation (reduces runoff) Increases during short, heavy rains, in deserts and in urban areas long periods of steady rain- may cause flooding and runoff –Runoff creates gullies and streams in deserts

5. Water Budget The balance of water received (precipitation) and used or lost (use, runoff, and evapotranspiration) in an area

6. Water budget factors Recharge: water that is stored and not needed by plants a time when plants need little moisture may cause water table to rise or become runoff Surplus: precipitation is more than need for moisture and soil water storage is filled

7. Water budget factors Usage: if moisture need is more than rainfall plants can draw water from surplus Deficit: when moisture need > precipitation and storage water is gone

8. Calculating a Water Budget Start by labeling Usage (U) –Usage is the first negative number of the year U continues until a positive number or -100 is reached -100 equals Deficit (D) –Deficit might not be reached D or U continues until you reach a positive number –This equals Recharge (R) R continues until +100 is reached –This equals Surplus (S) Surplus might not be reached S or R continues until a negative number (U) is reached –The budget ends here if it is a one year- budget

9. Journal Entry (Porosity) Porosity depends on particle shape (size), sorting, and space filling –round (pebbles) vs. flat (clay) Draw four circles and four boxes (2x2 setup and equal sized) Which have more space between? How would angular vary? –well sorted vs. poorly sorted Draw four more circles (2x2 and same size) and put dots (sand) in empty space between circles Were the first or second set of circles better sorted? Which have more pore space? Why? –compaction and cement Draw four ovals (same size as above and 2x2) on top of each other Why do they have less pore space than the circles? Shade in the space above and below where they to touch to show cement… What is the impact of cement? Write a one sentence summary and then list the ideal conditions for porosity

10. Water in the ground Porosity- open spaces between sediment grains (vol. water added/vol. dry material) x 100 = % porosity A has best porosity; B less to to mixed sorting; C less because compacted; D less from cement Depends on particle shape and sorting – rounded particles more space than angular or flat –well sorted more pore space than poorly sorted- because smaller grains fill pore space b/t larger grains –compaction and cement reduce porosity Higher porosity sediments make better aquifers: (rocks underground that are reservoirs for water storage )

11. Water in ground 2 Permeability- the connectedness of pore space Impermeable: fine-grained material that water cannot pass through- clay and shale –also pumice- porous but not permeable capillary water- the film of water that sticks to particles –Capillary action: the ability of a substance to draw a liquid upward against gravity due to adhesive and intermolecular attractive forces –Groundwater Flow TutorialGroundwater Flow Tutorial Increases with larger grain sizes Cracks mean permeable but not necessarily porous

12. Groundwater Levels water table levels are replenished in recharge zones –water filters through dry section of soil/rock to the level of groundwater in your area OR –it enters into the ground and flows down slope for miles to become part of your groundwater system

13. Water Table Location zone of aeration (unsaturated zone)- sediment above the water table that is not saturated- 3 parts –soil water just below surface –a dry section except during rainy season –capillary fringe- just above the water table –water table

14. Water Table the surface of the water is called the water table –a zone of saturation exists beneath the water table forms from the infiltration and storage of rainwater all pore space is filled with water

15. Depth of Water Table depends on rainfall (high↑, low ↓) season (slope ↓, flat ↑) soil thickness (thin ↑, thick ↓) climate time between rainfall seepage keeps streams flowing, maintains lake and swamp levels, supplies drinking water to springs and wells

16. Water System

17. Water Table Depth Change Journal Activity: Use an up-arrow or down-arrow to show if the water table comes closer to the surface or gets deeper with the following conditions rainfall (high, low) season (rainy, dry) (slope, flat) soil thickness (thin, thick) climate (tropical, desert) time between rainfall (a few days, many days)

18. Ordinary Wells and Springs Ordinary well- contains water up to level of water table Hillside spring – water table intersects hill slope

19. Aquifer Characteristics Aquifers: water-containing rock layer –Must be permeable- easily conducts water- and porous (sand or gravel) –usually confined above and below by confining beds (impermeable layers) of clay or hard or well-cemented rock) –have recharge zones- water usually travels a few cm/day- may travel up to 100’s of km form aquifer- Dakota Sandstone: Rockies to Great Plains

20. Types of aquifers and formation Confined aquifer: sandwiched by impermeable rock from above and below –cap rock: impermeable rock below unconfined aquifer or atop of an artesian aquifer Artesian aquifer: (naturally “pumping” and confined from above and below by confining beds (artesian wells might form) –confining bed: impermeable beds above and below an artesian aquifer (a confined aquifer) –Bedrock: rock that soil is formed from (might be a confining bed) (cap rock + artesian aquifer + confining beds) = artesian formation Unconfined aquifer: not topped by an impermeable rock from above (rock above is permeable)

21. Artesian Aquifer System

22. Artesian Wells and Springs flow from confining pressure of overlying sediment and water plus the effect of gravity –(as distance from source increases, depth increases) wells hundreds of km from mountains may go down more than 1000 m to reach water table fissure springs: artesian formations broken by cracks in cap rock- allow water to come through (e.g. desert oasis)

23. Groundwater Temperature Groundwater temperature-  Usu. cool… at depths up to 20 meters soil and rock are protected from weather change  Ground temp. is same as average annual temp. at that location- about 5-15 degrees Centigrade as is groundwater Cool in summer, no-freeze in winter except in polar regions where water in ground is always frozen- permafrost  Below 20 meters depth, internal heat raises the ground temperature about  1  C/40 meters of crust

24. Hot Springs  Hot springs- (must be at least 37  C (body temp.))  water heated from recent volcanic activity or  from its proximity to pockets of molten rock… or  heat source could be from 1000’s of meters depth  Water may boil  if gases bubbles through the thick clay slurry (volcanic gas induced chemical weathering of nearby rock)  the feature is called a mud pot…  if it is highly colored by mineral and organic matter it is called a paint pot

25. Hot Spring photo

26. Fumaroles and Geysers  Fumaroles- fissures from which water vapor and other hot gases emanate  Fumarole fields “grow” in some places-  Might provide energy for geysers Geysers: –boiling hot springs that periodically erupt as gushes of hot water steam- shoot up sheets of water

27. Geyser formation cartoon and Old Faithful

28. Geyser Formation Crooked geyser chambers and tubes Water is superheated by hot rock immense pressure- causes higher boiling point  however, water above the bottom is under less pressure so it boils and forces out water above-  superheated water changes to steam and explodes at surface due to sudden lessening of pressure  most of chamber is emptied process often occurs at regular intervals as groundwater re-collects causing process to repeat

29. Karst Topography Occurs in subsurface due to chemical weathering in well-drained landscapes by groundwater or by over- pumping wells TYPES: Above ground karst towers as shown –Formed by groundwater dissolving the rock between the towers Caverns: a large cave often with smaller connecting chambers formed by underground erosion of limestone by carbonic acid –Slightly acidic rainwater soaks into the ground, gets in to cracks and cavities that are easily attacked by chemical weathering

30. Cave foto/formation image

31. Cave features Stalactites vs. Stalagmites –Cone-shaped deposits of calcite that form from dissolved minerals precipitating (turning solid) out of solution when water drips from a cave roof StalaCtites: hang from cave ceilings StalaGmites: build upward from ground of cave floor –Column: a stalactite and stalagmite connect Other mineral deposits by groundwater –travertine, dripstone, geyserite (dissolved silica), petrified wood- silica replaces organic matter, and natural cement

32. Sinkhole photo/formation image Sinkholes –A circular depression that forms when part of a cave roof collapses beneath the ground

33. Groundwater minerals  As rainwater passes through the ground, it dissolves minerals which may remain in groundwater  Content depends on kind of rock water passes through  (limestone = more)  distance water has traveled underground  (farther = more)  water temperature  (higher = more)  Hard water contains more ions in solution than soft water- (usu. Ca, Mg, and Fe ions) –Hardness of artesian water > ordinary water > river water

34. Mineral Springs  Mineral content is too high to be used for ordinary drinking and washing  WHY do they exist?  Water passes through very soluble rock such as limestone  water contains large quantities of gases that form acids when mixed with water –CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) – carbonic acid, also hydrogen sulfide –Also because water is hot and capable of dissolving more minerals

35. Mineral Spring Benefits and Cautions  Benefit: can be used as a “health resort”- similar to mineral bath salt some people buy  Caution: in desert regions, alkali (bitter) mineral springs may be poisonous (borax, sodium carbonate, and sodium sulfate solutions )

36. Groundwater Problems and Conservation  Over-pumping can cause a drop (cone of depression) in the water table level  drops the level of water in wells/springs  (Recharge < Use)  inland, wells may go dry  seaside, there may be saltwater intrusion  Natural recharge (from rainwater and snow melt)  is slow may take > 1000 years to completely replenish some aquifers  Communities monitor the level of local water table- may need to regulate their water use  recycle used water after drainage into water treatment plants- its purified and pumped back into ground.

37. Groundwater Pollution  Sources of pollution:  toxic chemicals and hazardous materials from waste dumpsites  accidental spills  corrosion of underground storage containers  highway salt  agricultural fertilizers and pesticides  salt water  all seep into the ground and may mix with groundwater A difficult problem- no simple or inexpensive way to purify polluted water is known

38. Pollution Reduction  restrict and/or reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers)  find safer ways to dispose of harmful wastes (i.e. more durable/less corrosive storage containers)  harvest bacteria that breakdown wastes