1. 1 Atmospheric Tides: Linking Deep Tropical Convection to Ionosphere-Thermosphere Variability Briefly discuss migrating vs. non-migrating tides. Demonstrate relationship between the global distribution of troposphere deep tropical convection (and latent heating), and excitation of the eastward-propagating diurnal tide with zonal wavenumber = 3 (DE3) [and other tidal components]. Illustrate DE3 and wave-4 longitude structures in the lower thermosphere (90-110 km), and upper thermosphere and ionosphere (ca. 400 km) Reveal sea-surface temperature variability as a source of ionospheric variability

2. 2 Troposphere Solar Heating as a Driver for Ionospheric Variability? Earth’s atmosphere 0-500 km is a single connected system. Latent heating and other processes (e.g., heating by H 2 O absorption) excite a spectrum of waves (tides, planetary waves, gravity waves, Kelvin waves, etc.) that carry amplified tropospheric signals throughout the atmosphere. Analysis of these signals can inform us about tropospheric processes and changes. foF2

3. Global Distribution of Solar Heating from a Space-Based Perspective To an observer in space, it looks like the bulge is fixed with respect to the Sun, and the planet is rotating beneath it. In the local (solar) time frame, the heating may be represented as Local time, t LT “local perspective” diurnal, (n = 1), semidiurnal (n = 2), etc. tides

4. To an observer in space, it looks like the bulge is fixed with respect to the Sun, and the planet is rotating beneath it. To an observer on the ground, the bulge is moving westward at the apparent motion of the Sun. It is sometimes said that the bulge is ‘migrating’ with the apparent motion of the Sun with respect to an observer fixed on the planet. Since this thermal forcing is periodic, it can excite a wave, called a “thermal tide”, that can propagate from the lower atmosphere up into the upper atmosphere where it is dissipated. This is what things look like if the solar heating is the same at all longitudes. Converting to universal time t LT = t + / , we have Implying a zonal phase speed Taking into account longitude effects involves replacing n with s  n and summing over s as well Remember this for later, with s = 1

5. For solar heating that varies with longitude, a spectrum of tides is produced that consists of a linear superposition of waves of various frequencies (n) and zonal wavenumbers (s): implying zonal phase speeds The waves with s ≠ n are referred to as non-migrating tides because they do not migrate with respect to the Sun to a planetary-fixed observer. Transforming back to local time: At any given longitude, we have a sum of waves that defines the local time pattern of heating, as before; however, this pattern now changes with longitude. Similarly, at any given local time, we have a sum of waves that defines the longitude dependence of heating at that local time.

6. 6 -3025 Diurnal Latent Heating and Lower Thermosphere Response “Decomposition” of the diurnal heating rates yields a spectrum of diurnal waves, which, when superimposed, yields the pattern to the left. This wave spectrum propagates upward, and evolves with height since the various waves are affected differently by background winds and dissipation. They superimpose at high altitudes to give a pattern like the one to the left

7. Annual-mean height-Integrated (0-15 km) diurnal heating rates (K day -1 ) from NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis Project Dominant zonal wavenumber representing low-latitude land-sea contrast on Earth is m = 4 diurnal harmonic of solar radiation Modulation by dominant zonal wavenumber m = 4 m = 1 (short vertical wavelength) s = +5 s = -3 Spectrum of Diurnal Tides Excited by Latent Heating Due to Tropical Convection, Modulated by Land-Sea Contrast eastward propagating westward propagating n = 1 s = n = 1 “DE3 ”

8. 8 El-Niño-type conditions Normal conditions Source: SSTs are from the NCEP Version 2.0 OI Global SST analyses Other Factors Also Determine the Global Distribution of Latent Heating, e.g., Sea-Surface Temperature

9. Kelvin Wave DE3 Temperature Amplitude Distribution, August 2002, from TIMED/SABER Measurements

10. becomes How Does the Wave Appear from Sun- Synchronous Orbit? = 4 for DE3

11. SABER Temperature Residuals, August, LST = 1300, 110 km Raw temperature residuals (from the mean) exhibit the wave-4 pattern anticipated for a dominant eastward- propagating s = -3 diurnal tide.

12. 12

13. The Ionospheric Dynamo e-e- e-e- O+O+ B O 2 +, NO + VnVn equipotential line Global electrostatic field set up by dynamo action F-Region 200-1000 km E-Region 100-150 km

14. CHAMP electron densities (~400 km) reveal wave-4 structures due to DE3 driving of the ionospheric dynamo MauiYamagawa

15. Much of the longitude variability is thought to arise from land-sea modulation of the excitation of thermal tides that propagate to the thermosphere. DE3 gives rise to a wave-4 longitude structure when interfering with the sun-synchronous tide, DW1; similarly, DE2 gives rise to a wave-3 structure when interfering with DW1. CHAMP Neutral Temperatures Also Reveal Connections to Troposphere Excitation of Tidal Waves DE3 = eastward-propagating diurnal tide with zonal wavenumber = 3 DE2 = eastward-propagating diurnal tide with zonal wavenumber = 2 DW1 = westward-propagating diurnal tide with zonal wavenumber = 1 (Sun-synchronous)

16. DE3 SE2 Solar Cycle Dependence of DE3 and SE2 SE2 produced by land-sea modulation of semidiurnal component of solar heating, but also nonlinear interaction between DE3 and DW1!

17. Neutral Densities During Solar Minimum, 7 days in August, 2008 Non-symmetric wave-4 and non-anti-phase suggests SE2, not DE3

18. Neutral Densities During Solar Minimum, 11-17 December 2008 CHAMP, 332 km GRACE, 476 km CHAMP & GRACE co-planar

19. 19 Basic data: Monthly median foF2 values between 15-16 hr LT from the ionosondes located in Maui and Yamagawa 1960-1993, and calculate the following ratio. Due to the location of these stations with respect to the wave-4 structure maxima and minima, the above ratio is used as a proxy for the amplitude of the wave-4 structure. Solar cycle and seasonal variabilities are removed, leaving a time series that consists of foF2 RATIO monthly anomalies. Compare yearly extreme value of ONI and the extreme value of foF2 ratio anomalies in the subsequent five months. Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) gives SST anomalies due to the ENSO Long-term Variations in Ionospheric Wave-4

20. 20 Yearly extreme value of ONI (red) and the extreme value of foF2 ratio anomalies in the subsequent five months (black) from January 1960 to June 1993 [Pedatella and Forbes, 2009]. Changing sea surface temperatures are thought to reflect changes in latent heat forcing of DE3, which creates wave-4 in the ionosphere through dynamo electric fields.

21. 21 CONCLUSIONS Earth’s atmosphere 0-500 km is a single connected system. Latent heating and other processes (e.g., heating by H 2 O absorption) excite a spectrum of waves (tides, planetary waves, gravity waves, Kelvin waves, etc.) that carry amplified tropospheric signals throughout the atmosphere. Signatures of these waves appear in neutral densities and temperatures near the exobase, and throughout the ionosphere. Analysis of these signals can inform us about tropospheric processes and changes.

22. 22 Back-up Slides

23. From 2002-2008 monthly mean TEC data, the measured wave-4 amplitude is compared with the ratio of TEC values at the locations of Maui and Yamagawa To the extent that these curves agree, the assumption of using the foF2 ratio between Maui and Yamagawa is a reasonable proxy for wave-4 amplitude