1. Body Rhythms and Mental States Chapter 5 5 - 1

2. Chapter Outline Biological Rhythms The Rhythms of Sleep Exploring the Dream World The Riddle of Hypnosis Consciousness-Altering Drugs 5 - 2

3. Consciousness 1. Consciousness is personal 2. Consciousness is in constant change 3. Conscious thought is continuous 4. Conscious thought is often of objects outside of oneself 5. We are capable of selective attention/free will 5 - 3

4. Biological Rhythms Biological rhythms – A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological system (daily, annually, monthly) – Biological rhythms influence effectiveness of medication, alertness, job performance 5 - 4

5. Circadian Rhythms Circadian rhythms occur approximately every 24 hours (e.g., sleep-wake cycle) – Commonly synchronized to external time cues – Internal rhythm averages around 24.3 hrs – light-dark cycle from the Earth’s rotation, biological rhythms will reset across time zones 5 - 5

6. Circadian Rhythms Circadian rhythms – Controlled by biological clock in suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) – cell cluster in the hypothalamus Regulates levels of the hormone melatonin Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada5 - 6

7. Melatonin Over-the-counter melatonin is taken to treat insomnia and reduce jet-lag but currently is unregulated Quality, appropriate dosages and long-term safety is unknown 5 - 7

8. Circadian Rhythms Genetic differences Also affected by illness, stress, excitement, exercise, drugs, meal times etc. 5 - 8

9. Does the Menstrual Cycle affect moods? “Premenstrual syndrome” (PMS) – Vague cluster of physical & emotional symptoms associated with the days preceding menstruation that was labeled as an ‘illness’ – Physical symptoms (e.g., cramps, water retention) are common – Emotional symptoms (e.g., irritability, depression) are rare 5 - 9

10. Moods, PMS, & Research Expectations and beliefs may be related to PMS symptom reporting Fewer than 5% of women are found to predictably experience symptoms 5 - 10

11. The Rhythms of Sleep During sleep, we cycle between periods of REM & non-REM sleep – Non-REM (NREM) sleep – characterized by fewer eye movements than in REM Divided into 4 stages with different brain waves Stage 1: feel on the edge of consciousness; light sleep Stage 2: minor noises won’t disturb you Stage 3: breathing & pulse have slowed down; hard to awaken Stage 4: deep sleep; most likely stage for sleepwalking 5 - 11

12. The Rhythms of Sleep – Rapid eye movement (REM) – characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and dreaming – From a couple of minutes to an hour in length – Electrical activity resembles wakefulness 5 - 12

13. Why Do We Sleep? TIME OUT Exact function of sleep unclear but allows for certain processes to occur: – Body eliminates waste products from muscles – Repairs cells – Conserves & replenishes energy stores – Strengthens immune system 5 - 13

14. Why We Sleep – Necessary for normal mental functioning – Consolidation – the synaptic changes associated with recently stored memories become stable (leading to a more reliable memory). 5 - 14

15. Exploring the Dream World Why do we dream? “No one has come up with a convincing explanation for REM sleep” Various theories proposed to explain the purpose of dreams – Psychoanalytic – Problem-focused – Cognitive – Activation-synthesis 5 - 15

16. Psychoanalytic approach Dreams provide insight into unconscious wishes & desires Manifest content: aspects of dreams that are consciously experienced Latent content: aspects of dream that are unconscious wishes being expressed symbolically 5 - 16

17. Psychoanalytic Approach Freud also suggested that the manifest content be analyzed with the clients’ own associations BUT, there is no reliable, objective way to interpret the meanings of dreams

18. Problem-Focused Approach Dreams often contain material related to our current concerns (e.g., relationships, work, health) More than chance would predict! May provide opportunities to resolve problems 5 - 18

19. Cognitive Approach Dreams reflect are waking thoughts and experiences Similar to daydreaming at a biological level Dream complexity emergences with intellectual complexity 5 - 19

20. Activation-Synthesis 5 - 20 Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming Random electrical activity occurring in the pons The cortex tries to integrate this information with existing knowledge/ memories

21. Activation Synthesis Signals from the pons is random so the cortex interpretation (the dream) will be confusing and bizarre Signals usually set off emotional and visual parts of the brain 5 - 21

22. Hypnosis Psychologists agree that hypnosis affects some people, but they do not agree about whether it produces a genuinely altered state of consciousness Two competing theories: Dissociation Theories Sociocognitive Approach 5 - 22

23. Hypnosis o Procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of the participant o Variety of methods used to induce hypnosis, most involve relaxation o Who can be hypnotized? 5 - 23

24. The Nature of Hypnosis 1.Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the efforts & qualities of the person being hypnotized than on the skills of the hypnotist 2.Hypnotized people cannot be forced to do things against their will 3.Feats performed while under hypnosis can be performed by motivated people without hypnosis 5 - 24

25. The Nature of Hypnosis 4.Hypnosis does not increase the accuracy of memory 5.Hypnosis does not produce a literal re- experiencing of long-ago events 6.Hypnotic suggestions have been used effectively for many medical and psychological problems 5 - 25

26. Dissociation Theory of Hypnosis Involves dissociation or a split in consciousness in which one part of mind operates independently from the rest (presence of hidden observer) 5 - 26

27. Sociocognitive Theory of Hypnosis Effects of hypnosis result from an interaction between: 5 - 27 – the social influence of the hypnotist – the abilities, beliefs, and expectations of the subject – The hypnotized person plays a role and submits to hypnotist

28. Research and Hypnosis Does hypnosis alter perception and memory? Perception and memory appears intact but people’s reports of memory and perception is altered to what is expected of them (support for socio-cultural theory) Hypnosis can affect brain activity Associated with alpha brain waves (relaxed wakefulness) 5 - 28

29. Consciousness-Altering Drugs Psychoactive drug – A substance that alters perception, mood, thinking, memory, or behaviour by changing the body’s biochemistry – Used to manage illness or for nonmedical (recreational) reasons 5 - 29

30. Physiology of Drug Effects Psychoactive drugs produce their effects by acting on brain neurotransmitters (NTs) – Increase/decrease release of NTs – Prevent reuptake of NTs – Block effects of NTs on receiving cells – Bind to receptors that would ordinarily be triggered by NTs 5 - 30

31. Classifying Drugs 1.Stimulants – Drugs that speed up activity in the CNS E.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines E.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines – Produce feelings of excitement, confidence, euphoria – Make a person anxious, jittery, hyper-alert – Can cause convulsions, heart failure/death 5 - 31

32. Classifying Drugs 2.Depressants – Make you feel calm or drowsy, reduce anxiety, tension, inhibitions – Can cause death in high amounts – Slow activity in the CNS E.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, sleeping medication E.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, sleeping medication 5 - 32

33. Classifying Drugs 3.Opiates/Narcotics – Mimic endorphins – cause euphoria and decreases anxiety and motivation – Drugs, derived from opium poppy, that relieve pain, induce sleep and commonly produce euphoria E.g., opium, heroin, morphine, methadone E.g., opium, heroin, morphine, methadone 5 - 33

34. Classifying Drugs 4.Psychedelic drugs – Drugs that produce hallucinations, change thought processes, or disrupt the normal perception of time & space E.g., LSD, ecstasy, certain mushrooms E.g., LSD, ecstasy, certain mushrooms 5 - 34

35. Classifying Drugs 4.Psychedelic drugs – Emotional reactions vary from person to person can be pleasant or a nightmare 5 - 35

36. Classifying Drugs Other more commonly used drugs not in these categories – Anabolic steroids: types of testosterone taken by pill or injection; used to increase muscle size & strength 5 - 36

37. Classifying Drugs Other more commonly used drugs not in these categories – Marijuana: contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); related to mild euphoria, relaxation, intense sensations, reduced pain – Impairs concentration, coordination, visual perception and reaction times 5 - 37

38. Psychology of Drug Effects Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on: – Individual factors such as weight, metabolism, level of emotional arousal, personality, physical tolerance – Experience or number of times drug has been taken – First use of alcohol or cigarettes typically has a neutral or unpleasant experience 5 - 38

39. Psychology of Drug Effects Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on: – Environmental setting or context where drug is taken – Wine at home = sleepy, wine at a party = energetic – Mental set or expectations about drugs effect & reasons for taking it – Placebo effects, pain reduction, self-treatment of anxiety or depression 5 - 39

40. Physiology of Drug Effects Use of some psychoactive drugs can lead to tolerance – Increased resistance to a drug’s effects accompanying continued use – Typically leads to increased amount or use – Can be related to place and situational factors – Tolerance is different from addiction 5 - 40

41. Physiology of Drug Effects Drug abuse: drugs that cause damage (whether emotional or physical) to the individual using them or to others Addiction: a condition where a person is compelled to use a drug in order to function “normally” 5 - 41

42. Physiology of Drug Effects When heavy users stop, may suffer severe withdrawal symptoms – Physical & psychological symptoms that occur when someone addicted to a drug stops taking it – Symptoms can vary from nausea, cramps, sweating, depression and more 5 - 42

43. End of Chapter 5 5 - 43