1. Third Exam Thursday 3 December 2015
Chapters 11-15, plus 8 readings
Energy
Money
Peak Oil
Land
Food
Water
Sewage
Space Travel
Final Exam
9 December
2-5 PM

2. Microbiome, antibiotics, Germs R us, appendix =“bomb shelter”
Challenges facing Parasites, hosts as islands, how to infect new ones?
Host specificity, high fecundities, exploitation of vectors (mosquitoes)
Intermediate and final hosts, host altered behavior (rabies, etc.)
Assassin bugs (Triatoma), contact, blood sucking, Chagas’s Disease Malaria (Plasmodium), fever
Tapeworms (Cestodes), Nematodes (roundworms)
Cholera (Shigella) transmission via dysentery, water borne
Toilet seats, elevator buttons, door knobs, shopping carts...etc.
Getting into and out of a public restroom safely
Molecular mimicry: “eclipsed antigens” resemble host antigens hence do not elicit formation of host antibodies Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), identity of self, immune response
Trypanosoma shed coats, change antigens Filariasis Elephantiasis (lymph nodes blocked by nematodes carried by mosquitoes)
Botflies
Dracunculus medinensis, caduceus symbol of medicine

3. Evolution of Virulence (benign parasites allow hosts to live)
Host altered behavior Rabies virus — rabid animals bite, passes on virus to new host
Lancet fluke Trematode Dicrocoelium dentriticum Cercaria —> Metacercariae encyst on ant’s brain Sheep ingest an ant and get infected Starlings, Pill bugs, and Acanthocephalans Ducks, Amphipods, and Acanthocephalans STDs ——> increased sexual activity?
Ectoparasites (fleas, ticks, lice), endoparasites
Social parasites (thievery, brood parasitism)
Parasitoids: Ichneumonid wasps ————>
Microparasites —> macroparasites —> parasitoids —> predator spectrum
and many correlates thereof, such as relative sizes, rates of increase,
number of parasites per host, virulence, stability, and ability to
regulate lower trophic level

4. Coevolution Joint evolution of two (or more) taxa that have close ecological relationships but do not exchange genes, and in which reciprocal selective pressures operate to make the evolution of either taxon partially dependent on the evolution of the other

5. Enterobius
Pinworms
(Parasites
on Primates)

6. Parallel phylogenies Brooks and Glen 1982 Enterobius species
Primate hosts

7. Drosophila pachea and senita cactus.
Danaid butterflies use polyuridine alkaloids as chemical precursors for synthesis of pheromones used in attracting mates.
An arginine mimic, l-canavavine, present in many legumes,
ruins protein structure in most insects.
However, a bruchid beetle has evolved metabolic machinery
that enable it to use plants containing canavanine.

8. Wild ginger, Asarum caudatum, in western Washington are
polymorphic for growth rate, seed production, and palatabililty to
a native slug, Ariolimax columbianus (Cates 1975).
Where slugs are uncommon, plants allocate more energy to
growth and seed production and less to production of antiherbivore
chemicals. In habitats with lots of slugs, less palatable plants have
a fitness advantage — even though they grow more slowly, they
lose less photosynthetic tissue to slug herbivory.

9. Some of the Suggested Correlates of Plant Apparency
_____________________________________________________________________________
Apparent Plants Unapparent Plants
Common or conspicuous Rare or ephemeral
Woody perennials Herbaceous annuals
Long leaf life span Short-lived leaves
Slow growing, competitive species Faster growing, often fugitive species
Late stages of succession, climax Early stages of succession, second growth
Bound to be found by herbivores Protected from herbivores by escape in
(cannot escape in time and space) time and space (but still encountered by
wide-ranging generalized herbivores)
Produce more expensive quantitative Produce inexpensive qualitative chemical
(broad-based) antiherbivore defenses defenses (poisons or toxins) to discourage
(tough leaves, thorns, tannins) generalized herbivores
Quantitative defenses constitute Qualitative defenses may be broken down
effective ecological barriers to her- over evolutionary time by coevolution of
bivores, although perhaps only a weak appropriate detoxification mechanisms in
evolutionary barrier unless supple- herbivores (host plant-specific herbivore
mented with qualitative defenses species result)
Paul Feeny

10. Daniel Janzen

11. Pine squirrels (Tamiasciurus) and
coniferous food trees (Smith 1970)
Squirrels are very effective seed predators, stockpile cones
Trees reduce squirrel effectiveness in many different ways:
Cones difficult for squirrels to reach, open, or carry
Putting fewer seeds in each cone (fake cones without any seeds)
Increasing thickness of seed coats (seeds harder to harvest)
Putting less energy into each seed (smaller seeds)
Shedding seeds from cones early, before young squirrels forage
Periodic cone crop failures decimate squirrel populations
Individual trees out of synchrony would set fewer seeds and thus
be selected against.

12. Community and Ecosystem Ecology Macrodescriptors = Aggregate Variables Trophic structure, food webs, connectance, rates of energy fixation and flow, ecological efficiency, species diversity, stability, relative importance curves, guild structure, successional stages Communities are not designed by natural selection for smooth and efficient function, but are composed of many antagonists (we need to attempt to understand them in terms of interactions between individual organisms)

13. Gross Productivity = rate at which plants capture solar energy
Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics
Gross Productivity = rate at which plants capture solar energy
Gross annual production (GAP)
Net productivity = gross productivity minus respiration losses
Net annual production (NAP)
Respiration in tropical rainforest 75-80% of GAP
Respiration in temperate forests % of GAP
In most other communities, it is % of GAP
Only about 5-10% of plant food is harvested by animals
Remainder of NAP is consumed by decomposers
Biogeochemical cycles

14. Biogeochemical Cycle for Calcium
Hydrologic Cycle

15. Compartmentation Trophic Levels Autotrophs = producers Guild Structure
Heterotrophs = consumers & decomposers
Primary carnivores = secondary consumers
Secondary carnivores = tertiary consumers
Trophic continuum
Horizontal versus vertical interactions
Within and between trophic levels
Guild Structure
Foliage gleaning insectivorous birds
Food Webs
Subwebs, sink vs. source food webs
Connectance [n (n-1)] / 2

17. Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

18. Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

19. Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics
At equilibrium (dLi/dt = 0 for all i), energy flow in the system portrayed in the figure may thus be represented by a set of simple equations (with inputs on the left and rate of outflow to the right of the equal signs):
l10 = l01 + l02 + l03 + l04
l10 = l21 + l01 + l41
l21 = l32 + l02 + l42
l32 = l03 + l43
l41 + l42 + l43 = l04

20. Systems Ecology

21. Food Web
Paine (1966)

22. Food Web
Bottom Line

23. Kirk Winemiller

25. Ecological Pyramids (numbers, biomass, and energy)
Pyramid of energy
Measures of standing crop versus rates of flow

27. Secondary Succession

28. Institute Woods in Princeton

29. Transition Matrix for Institute Woods in Princeton
_________________________________________________________________________
Canopy Sapling Species (%)
Species BTA GB SF BG SG WO OK HI TU RM BE Total __________________________________________________________________________
BT Aspen
Gray birch
Sassafras
Blackgum
Sweetgum
White Oak
Red Oak
Hickory
Tuliptree
Red Maple
Beech
__________________________________________________________________________
BTA in next generation = 0.03 BTA SF BG Grand Total = 3286
Henry Horn

30. Distributions of Trees Observed in 4 Forests and Predicted Climax
__________________________________________________________________ __________________
Age (years) BTA GB SF BG SG WO OK HI TU RM BE __________________________________________________________________ __________________
Predicted
climax
Data from the
Institute Woods in Princeton (Horn 1975)
Henry Horn

31. Diversity and Community Stability
Diversity and Community Stability Saturation with Individuals and with Species Species Diversity = Biodiversity Species Density or Species Richness Relative Importance Equitability

32. Janzen’s Seedling Ring Hypothesis Tamiasciurus squirrel seed predation Community and Ecosystem Ecology Macrodescriptors = Aggregate Variables Compartment models, trophic structure, food webs, connectance, rates of energy fixation and flow, biogeochemical cycles, ecological energetics, ecological efficiency, trophic continuum, guild structure, ecological pyramids, successional stages, transition matrix, species diversity, stability, relative importance curves.

33. Diversity and Community Stability
Diversity and Community Stability Saturation with Individuals and with Species Species Diversity = Biodiversity Species Density or Species Richness Relative Abundance/Importance Equitability

34. Species Diversity, Relative Abundance. Species. Site A. Site B. A. 10
Species Diversity, Relative Abundance Species Site A Site B A B C D E F G H I J

35. Relative Abundance / Importance
Ways two systems can differ in diversity
Relative Abundance / Importance

36. All 10 Sites: Total Number of lizards: 20,990
Total numbers of lizards of 67 species
collected on 10 desert study sites from
plotted against their ranks in
relative abundance. The 12 most common
species (blue) are named, along with 7 of
the 54 less common to rare species (red).
Samples exceed 30 for 48 of the 67 species.

37. Discriminant function analysis showing clear separation of rare species based on 10 ecological variables including body size, clutch size, niche breadths and overlaps for diet, microhabitat, and habitat.