1. ELEMENTS, ATOMS, AND MOLECULES Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. Outline for Chemistry Test Study:  Atoms and subatomic particles  molecules  Isotopes  Ions  Ionic and covalent bonds  Compounds  Phases of matter  Periodic table  Solutions  pH scale  Organic compounds  Law of conservation of matter and energy

3. Atoms and subatomic particles molecules Isotopes Ions Ionic and covalent bonds Compounds Phases of matter Periodic table Solutions pH scale Organic compounds Law of conservation of matter and energy

4.  O, N, Be, H, He  Atomic number = number of protons and the number of electrons  Number of neutrons = mass number- atomic number  mass number  electron shell diagram

5. Chemicals – Good or Bad for us???  The dangers posed by certain chemicals in our food and broader environment often misled people to associate chemicals with harm.  People might not want chemicals added to their food or in their environment.  Our bodies and our world are chemical by nature.  Natural does not necessarily mean good.  Some naturally occurring toxins are: botulism, arsenic, mercury, lead, saxitoxins (shellfish)…

6. You should be able to § Explain the formation of compounds § Describe the structure of an atom § Distinguish between ionic, hydrogen, and covalent bonds § Explain the pH scale and the formation of acid and base solutions § Define a chemical reaction and explain how it changes the composition of matter Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

7. 2.1 Living organisms are composed of about 25 chemical elements  Living organisms are composed of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass (weight) –Matter is composed of chemical elements –Element—a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances –There are 92 elements in nature—only a few exist in a pure state –Life requires 25 essential elements; some are called trace elements Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

9. 2.3 Elements can combine to form compounds  Compound—a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio –There are many compounds that consist of only two elements –Table salt (sodium chloride or NaCl) is an example –Sodium is a metal, and chloride is a poisonous gas –However, when chemically combined, an edible compound emerges Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

10. Sodium ChlorideChlorineSodium +

11. 2.3 Elements can combine to form compounds  Many of the compounds in living organisms contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen –DNA, for example, contains all four of these elements  Interestingly, different arrangements of elements provide unique properties for each compound Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

12. Organic Compounds  An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon.  There are millions of carbon compounds because:  Carbon has 4 valence electrons, it can form compounds with many different elements.  Carbon can form bonds with other carbon atoms  Carbon can form single, double and triple bonds Carbon rules!!!

13. 2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons  An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of a element –Atoms are made of over a hundred subatomic particles, but only three are important for biological compounds –Proton—has a single positive electrical charge –Electron—has a single negative electrical charge –Neutron—is electrically neutral Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

14. 2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons  Elements differ in their number of protons, neutrons, and electrons  Helium has two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons  Carbon has six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

15. Electron cloud Protons 2e – Nucleus Electrons Mass number = 4 Neutrons 2 2 2

16. 2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons  Neutrons and protons are packed in the atom’s nucleus –The negative charge of electrons and the positive charge of protons keep electrons near the nucleus –The number of protons is the atom’s atomic number –Carbon with 6 protons has an atomic number of 6 –The mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus (carbon-12 is written 12 C) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

17. Electron cloud Protons 6e – Nucleus Electrons Mass number = 12 Neutrons 6 6 6

18. 2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons  Although all atoms of an element have the same atomic number, some differ in mass number –The variations are isotopes, which have the same numbers of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons –One isotope of carbon has 8 neutrons instead of 6 (written 14 C) –Unlike 12 C, 14 C is an unstable (radioactive) isotope that gives off energy Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

20. 2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical properties of an atom  Only electrons are involved in chemical activity  Electrons occur in energy levels called electron shells –Information about the distribution of electrons is found in the periodic table of the elements Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

22. 2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical properties of an atom  An atom may have one, two, or three electron shells –The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the chemical properties of the atom: valence electrons –Valence electrons determine which elements will bond with which other element. –The first shell is full with two electrons, whereas the second and third will hold up to eight electrons Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

23. 2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical properties of an atom  Atoms want to fill their outer electron shells –To accomplish this, the atom can share, donate, or receive electrons –This results in attractions between atoms called chemical bonds  Chemical bonds cause atoms to stay close together!!! Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

24. 2.7 Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of opposite charge  An ion is an atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting from gain or loss of electrons –When an electron is lost, a positive charge results; when one is gained, a negative charge results  Two ions with opposite charges attract each other –When the attraction holds the ions together, it is called an ionic bond Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Ionic Bonds

25. Na Sodium atom Transfer of electron Cl Chlorine atom

26. Na Sodium atom Transfer of electron Cl Chlorine atom Na + Sodium ion Cl – Chloride ion Sodium chloride (NaCl) + –

27. 2.8 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing  A covalent bond results when atoms share outer- shell electrons –A molecule is formed when atoms are held together by covalent bonds Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Covalent Bonds

29. Law of Conservation of Mass/Energy  The principle of conservation of mass/energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another.  Thus in any isolated or closed system, the sum of all forms of energy remains constant.  Energy is conserved

30. 2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water  Water can exist as a gas, liquid, and solid –Water is less dense as a solid, a property due to hydrogen bonding –What is condensation? Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

31. (–) O HH (+)

32. 2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water  When water freezes, each molecule forms a stable hydrogen bond with four neighbors –A three-dimensional crystal results –There is space between the water molecules  Ice is less dense than water, so it floats Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

33. Liquid water Hydrogen bonds constantly break and re-form Ice Hydrogen bonds are stable Hydrogen bond

34. 2.14 Water is the solvent of life  A solution is a liquid consisting of a uniform mixture of two or more substances –The dissolving agent is the solvent –The substance that is dissolved is the solute Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

35. Ion in solution Salt crystal

36. 2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions  A few water molecules can break apart into ions –Some are hydrogen ions (H + ) –Some are hydroxide ions (OH – ) –Both are extremely reactive –A balance between the two is critical for chemical processes to occur in a living organism Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

37. 2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions  Chemicals other than water can contribute H + to a solution –They are called acids –An example is hydrochloric acid (HCl) –This is the acid in your stomach that aids in digestion  An acidic solution has a higher concentration of H + than OH –  Examples of acids are: ________________________ Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

38. 2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions  Some chemicals accept hydrogen ions and remove them from solution –These chemicals are called bases –For example, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) provides OH – that combines with H + to produce H 2 O (water) –This reduces the H + concentration –Examples of bases are:___________________ Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

39. 2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions  A pH scale (pH = potential of hydrogen) is used to describe whether a solution is acidic or basic –pH ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic) –A solution that is neither acidic or basic is neutral (pH = 7) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

40. Acidic solution pH scale Battery acid 0 1 2 3 4 5 Lemon juice, gastric juice Grapefruit juice, soft drink, vinegar, beer Tomato juice Rain water Human urine Saliva Pure water 6 7 Human blood, tears Seawater 8 9 10 11 12 13 Milk of magnesia Household ammonia Household bleach Oven cleaner Neutral solution Basic solution NEUTRAL [H + ]=OH – ] Increasingly ACIDIC (Higher concentration of H + ) 14 Increasingly BASIC (Lower concentration of H + )

41. Acidic solution Neutral solution Basic solution

42. CHEMICAL REACTIONS Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

43. 2.18 Chemical reactions make and break bonds, changing the composition of matter  You learned that the structure of atoms and molecules determines the way they behave –Remember that atoms combine to form molecules –Hydrogen and oxygen can react to form water 2H 2 + O 2 2H 2 O Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

44. 2.18 Chemical reactions make and break bonds, changing the composition of matter  The formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen is an example of a chemical reaction  The reactants (H 2 and O 2 ) are converted to H 2 O, the product –Organisms do not make water, but they do carry out a large number of chemical reactions that rearrange matter –Photosynthesis is an example where plants drive a sequence of chemical reactions that produce glucose Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

45. 2 H 2 O2O2 2 H 2 O

46. electron transfer between atoms creates electron sharing between atoms creates Chemical Bonds atomic number of each element water nonpolar covalent bonds (e) ions (f) (g) (h) attraction between ions creates unequal sharing creates can lead to example is equal sharing creates has important qualities due to polarity and have positively charged have neutral have negatively charged number in outer shell determines formation of number may differ in number present equals (a) Atoms (b) (c) (d)

47. atomic number of each element have positively charged have neutral have negatively charged number in outer shell determines formation of number may differ in number present equals (a) Atoms (b) (c) (d)

48. electron transfer between atoms creates electron sharing between atoms creates Chemical Bonds water nonpolar covalent bonds (e) ions (f) (g) (h) attraction between ions creates unequal sharing creates can lead to example is equal sharing creates has important qualities due to polarity and

49. Potassium atomFluorine atom

50. You should now be able to 1.Explain the formation of compounds 2.Describe the structure of an atom 3.Distinguish between ionic, hydrogen, and covalent bonds 4.Explain the pH scale and the formation of acid and base solutions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

51. Concept Check  The reactive properties or chemical behavior of an atom mostly depend on the number of  the electrons in each electron shell of the atom.  the neutrons found in the nucleus.  the filled electron shells.  the electrons in the outer electron shell of the atom.

52. Answer  The reactive properties or chemical behavior of an atom mostly depend on the number of  the electrons in the outer electron shell of the atom.

53. Interpreting Data – Iron is the fourth most common element (by weight) in the Earth’s crust. – Iron is an essential trace element for all living organisms. – Ocean waters, particularly the Southern Ocean have very minute amounts of iron. – The iron hypothesis states that iron availability limits ocean productivity.

54. Interpreting Data  These are the results of a laboratory experiment to test the effect of trace nutrients on the productivity of Pacific Ocean water. After 6 days which nutrient had the greatest effect on productivity?  Iron.  Manganese.  Copper.  Zinc. Adapted from Coale, Kenneth H. 1991. Effects of Iron, Manganese, Copper and Zinc Enrichments on Productivity and Biomass in the Subarctic Pacific. Limnology and Oceanography. 36: 1851-1864

55. Answer  These are the results of a laboratory experiment to test the effect of trace nutrients on the productivity of Pacific Ocean water. After 6 days which nutrient had the greatest effect on productivity?  Iron. Adapted from Coale, Kenneth H. 1991. Effects of Iron, Manganese, Copper and Zinc Enrichments on Productivity and Biomass in the Subarctic Pacific. Limnology and Oceanography. 36: 1851-1864

56. Study:  Atoms and subatomic particles  molecules  Isotopes  Ions  Ionic and covalent bonds  Compounds  Phases of matter  Periodic table  Solutions  pH scale  Organic compounds  Law of conservation of matter and energy