1. The Nature of Scientific Inquiry How Science Works

2. Foundations of Science Natural Cause: The universe behaves in a predictable way under “rules” that can be determined through observation and experimentation. Efficient Cause: effect follows cause (no Final Cause, no teleological)

3. Foundations of Science Uniformity: The “rules” are constant through space and time. Parsimony: All other things being equal, the simplest explanation is the best. Objectivity: The scientist must set aside preconceived concepts that might prejudice investigation and interpretation.

4. Foundations of Science Falsifiability (Popper)  every hypothesis and theory is subject to being proven false at any time Paradigms (Kuhn)  scientists operate under overarching ideas that determine the areas investigated and how the results are interpreted  new ideas that vary significantly from the existing paradigm must overturn the existing paradigm in order to be taken seriously

5. Scientific Investigation Characteristics  objective  systematic  precise (of known precision)  accurate (of known accuracy)  creative  insightful  rational

6. Scientific Investigation “Scientific Method”  no single method  a pattern for how to examine things  unassailable proof and truth are very rare (if they exist at all)  must document

7. Scientific Method Observation Question Hypothesis Investigation  observation  experimentation Theory

8. Theory & Hypothesis Hypothesis  a working explanation or “educated guess”  competing hypotheses are often investigated simultaneously Theory  the best explanation supported by a preponderance of the evidence  the best a scientist can hope for

9. Scientific Explanations must be natural must be supported by available data must be testable & falsifiable subject to revision or refinement or negation should be predictive

10. Scientific Explanations no arguments from or appeals to authority can & should build on published work of others must be prepared to defend previous work as well

11. Scientific Uncertainty always present goal: known range  < 1%: extremely unlikely  1-10%: little chance, very unlikely  10-33%: some chance, unlikely  33-66%: medium likelihood  66-90%: likely, probable  90-99%: very likely, very probable  > 99%: virtual certainty (from: “Uncertain Science…Uncertain World,” Pollack, 2003)

12. Scientific Publication Oral Presentation Poster Presentation Peer Reviewed  Scientific Report  Journal  Text/Reference

13. Why give science precedence? It works! Examples  Germ theory: explains why we get sick  Plate tectonics theory: explains earthquakes & volcanoes & predicts economic deposits  Gravity theory: allows safe space travel & structure design  Natural selection theory: agricultural development, improved medical practice (laboratory experimentation & germ control), enhanced pest control