1. Social Norms and Helping Norm of Reciprocity - We feel obligated to help people who have helped us.

2. Norm of Reciprocity and Helping

3. Norm of Reciprocity - We feel obligated to help people who have helped us. Qualified by Norm of Equity - The overbenefited should help the underbenefited Norm of Social Responsibility - We should help those who need us. Qualified by Norm of Justice - We should help those who deserve it. Social Norms and Helping (Cont.)

4. Good Mood and Helping People in a good mood are more likely to help The cookie study The dime in the phone booth study One catch it wears off quickly

5. Good Mood and Helping (Wears Off with Time)

6. How does it work Positive thoughts Mood maintenance Good Mood and Helping

7. Bad Mood and Helping People in a bad mood are also more likely to help Guilt in particular seems to motivate helping The Lie Study Other bad moods also increase helping (sometimes) Helping boosts people’s mood But if mood is improved in another way bad mood doesn’t improve helping It doesn’t workfor children Suggests that helping provides an internal gratification

8. Empathy and Helping Other’s distress leads to two emotional responses one’s own distress empathy - compassion for the other person This leads to two motivations motive to reduce own’s own distress motive to help the other person This leads to two behavioral responses attempt to reduce own’s distress - leave attempt to help the other person - stay

9. Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, & Birch (1981) Experiment The Setup Confederate receiving shock Participant observing The Independent Variables Increased empathy with the victim Opportunity to leave the experiment The findings

10. Results of Batson, et al., 1981

11. Empathy and Helping Summary of Batson’s Model

12. Schaller & Cialdini (1988) - A Challenge to Batson’s Model The Setup - Participants listened to a tape supposedly from a fellow student in need of help. The Independent variable - Increased empathy with the victim They expected to listen to neutral or mood- enhancing information, or be given the opportunity to help The results -

13. Schaller & Cialdini (1988) results

14. So, Are We Altruistic or Not? Cialdini and colleagues argue that an egoistic interpretation cannot be ruled out. Nevertheless, it seems that crass egoism can be distinguished from helping that is at least partially motivated by the desire to help the other.