1. A ‘Multiple Needs’ Model of Workaholism & Other Worker Types Evan J. Douglas & Robyn J. Morris

2. Introduction Why do people work? Why do people work? Why do some work harder than others? Why do some work harder than others? Working hard is ‘good’ for business profitability, national income, global competitiveness, etc. Working hard is ‘good’ for business profitability, national income, global competitiveness, etc. But ‘Workaholics’ have negative impacts on themselves, co-workers, family, community, etc. But ‘Workaholics’ have negative impacts on themselves, co-workers, family, community, etc. They prefer to work, but they usually experience low work enjoyment They prefer to work, but they usually experience low work enjoyment ‘Work Enthusiasts’ also work hard ‘Work Enthusiasts’ also work hard They are averse to work itself, but work hard because they gain high levels of work enjoyment. They are averse to work itself, but work hard because they gain high levels of work enjoyment.

3. Previous Research Spence & Robbins identified 6 worker types, based on their ‘triad’ of characteristics: Spence & Robbins identified 6 worker types, based on their ‘triad’ of characteristics: Work Involvement Work Involvement The extent to which a person works hard The extent to which a person works hard Psychic Drive to work Psychic Drive to work Inner need to work Inner need to work Work Enjoyment Work Enjoyment The satisfaction the person gains from working The satisfaction the person gains from working Buelens & Poelmans (2004) identified 2 more… Buelens & Poelmans (2004) identified 2 more…

4. The Worker Typology Worker Type InvolvementDriveEnjoyment Enthusiastic Workaholic HighHighHigh Workaholic (Work addict) HighHighLow Work Enthusiast HighLowHigh Reluctant Hard Worker HighLowLow Alienated Professional LowHighHigh Disenchanted worker LowHighLow Relaxed worker LowLowHigh Disengaged worker LowLowLow

5. Focus on Consequences Research has focused on the ‘hard worker’ types Research has focused on the ‘hard worker’ types Those with high work involvement Those with high work involvement Focus has been largely on the consequences of working hard Focus has been largely on the consequences of working hard Hard workers may cause negative impacts on Hard workers may cause negative impacts on Their own health Their own health Co-worker job satisfaction Co-worker job satisfaction Business productivity Business productivity But so might others (who do not work very hard) But so might others (who do not work very hard)

6. The Focus of this Paper This is a conceptual paper, to identify and clarify the motives for working (or not working) hard This is a conceptual paper, to identify and clarify the motives for working (or not working) hard And why people gain more (or less) work enjoyment And why people gain more (or less) work enjoyment Will not address the negative (or positive) impacts of workaholism Will not address the negative (or positive) impacts of workaholism Conceptually separate issue (externalities) Conceptually separate issue (externalities) Will treat ‘hard work’ as long hours and/or high intensity of work Will treat ‘hard work’ as long hours and/or high intensity of work Work Effort = Hours x Intensity Work Effort = Hours x Intensity

7. Research Questions What causes people to work harder, or less hard? What causes people to work harder, or less hard? Only reason offered so far is ‘psychic drive’ Only reason offered so far is ‘psychic drive’ What causes people to gain greater (or lesser) work enjoyment? What causes people to gain greater (or lesser) work enjoyment? Can we offer a theory that explains each of the worker types? Can we offer a theory that explains each of the worker types? Why they have high (or low) work involvement; Why they have high (or low) work involvement; Why they have high (or low) work enjoyment; and Why they have high (or low) work enjoyment; and Why they have higher or lower total satisfaction. Why they have higher or lower total satisfaction.

8. What causes people to work harder? They want more income They want more income To buy goods and services To buy goods and services They don’t enjoy their non-work time They don’t enjoy their non-work time Lack of leisure activities, friends, toys to play with… Lack of leisure activities, friends, toys to play with… They enjoy the non-monetary aspects of work They enjoy the non-monetary aspects of work Social networking, good managers, good co-workers Social networking, good managers, good co-workers Tangible and intangible perquisites (perks) of work Tangible and intangible perquisites (perks) of work They have perfectionist tendencies They have perfectionist tendencies Getting things perfect requires working longer Getting things perfect requires working longer They want to achieve success or specific targets They want to achieve success or specific targets Achieving targets takes longer than not achieving them Achieving targets takes longer than not achieving them

9. People work to satisfy needs… Need for goods and services (+) Need for goods and services (+) Economic Orientation Economic Orientation Need for leisure (-) Need for leisure (-) Leisure Orientation Leisure Orientation Need for perquisites associated with the workplace (+) Need for perquisites associated with the workplace (+) Perquisite Orientation Perquisite Orientation Need to work (+/-) Need to work (+/-) Work Orientation Work Orientation Need for perfectionism (+/-) Need for perfectionism (+/-) Perfectionist Orientation Perfectionist Orientation Need for achievement (+) Need for achievement (+) Achievement Orientation Achievement Orientation

10. What causes people to be happier? Having and enjoying goods and services Having and enjoying goods and services Economic Orientation Economic Orientation Having and enjoying their leisure (non-work) time Having and enjoying their leisure (non-work) time Leisure Orientation Leisure Orientation Having and enjoying perquisites at work Having and enjoying perquisites at work Perquisite Orientation Perquisite Orientation Having the opportunity to work Having the opportunity to work Work Orientation Work Orientation Getting closer to perfection Getting closer to perfection Perfectionist Orientation Perfectionist Orientation Achieving targets and success Achieving targets and success Achievement Orientation Achievement Orientation

11. Economic Orientation Defined as ‘the strength of preference for income’ Defined as ‘the strength of preference for income’ This preference is derived from the strength of preference for goods and services (i.e. materialism) This preference is derived from the strength of preference for goods and services (i.e. materialism) Some strongly prefer material things, others less so… Some strongly prefer material things, others less so… Income is generally related to productivity, which is generally related to time spent working… Income is generally related to productivity, which is generally related to time spent working… Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) It encompasses the preference for future income It encompasses the preference for future income E.g. One might work harder to gain a promotion E.g. One might work harder to gain a promotion Also encompasses the preference for financial security Also encompasses the preference for financial security E.g. One might work harder to build a bigger ‘nest egg’ E.g. One might work harder to build a bigger ‘nest egg’

12. Leisure Orientation Defined as ‘the attitude of an individual to leisure’ Defined as ‘the attitude of an individual to leisure’ For simplicity in this paper, Leisure = Non-work For simplicity in this paper, Leisure = Non-work The strength of preference for non-work time The strength of preference for non-work time Is derived from the strength of preference one has for Is derived from the strength of preference one has for Time spent by oneself, relaxing, sleeping Time spent by oneself, relaxing, sleeping Time spent with family Time spent with family Doing chores Doing chores Playing with one’s ‘toys’ Playing with one’s ‘toys’ Participating in the community Participating in the community Involvement in sport and recreation, etc. Involvement in sport and recreation, etc. High and low preferences for leisure… High and low preferences for leisure… Depend on your preferences for the above components Depend on your preferences for the above components The income-leisure trade-off The income-leisure trade-off Only 24 hours in a day Only 24 hours in a day

13. The Income-Leisure Trade-off W3W3 I3I3 I2I1I2I1 Y3Y2Y1Y3Y2Y1 Income S W2 W2 0E 1 E 2 E 3 Work Effort W1W1

14. Different Work-Effort Supply Curves E S S 0E max 0 E max 0 E max Y (a) Y (b) Y (c) E E S

15. Changed Economic or Leisure Orientations A C B S S’ I” I’ I I2I2 0 E 2 E’ E” E max Work Effort Income Y’ Y 2 The ‘wall’

16. Perquisite Orientation Perquisite Orientation is defined as the strength of preference for the non-monetary benefits associated with working Perquisite Orientation is defined as the strength of preference for the non-monetary benefits associated with working Perks are both tangible & intangible Perks are both tangible & intangible Physical things – office, car, location, etc. Physical things – office, car, location, etc. Social interaction with co-workers, fun at work, good management/leadership, achievement, etc Social interaction with co-workers, fun at work, good management/leadership, achievement, etc Some perks are negative Some perks are negative Irksome co-workers, traffic congestion, etc Irksome co-workers, traffic congestion, etc Net perks = Perks – Irks Net perks = Perks – Irks This is what we mean when we say ‘perquisites’ This is what we mean when we say ‘perquisites’ Perquisite orientation shifts the Supply Curve outward Perquisite orientation shifts the Supply Curve outward

17. Work Orientation Defined as the individual’s attitude to work per se Defined as the individual’s attitude to work per se Economists traditionally expect this is to be negative; i.e. workers have an aversion to work. Economists traditionally expect this is to be negative; i.e. workers have an aversion to work. Calvinistic ‘work ethic’ assumes that for some people this attitude is positive: Calvinistic ‘work ethic’ assumes that for some people this attitude is positive: An inner psychic need to work An inner psychic need to work Work itself gives satisfaction Work itself gives satisfaction This means the indifference curves will be positively sloping in income-work effort space This means the indifference curves will be positively sloping in income-work effort space

18. The Range of Work Orientations Y S3S3 S2S2 0 E wall 0 E wall 0 E wall (a) Work Preference(b) Preference & Aversion(c) Work Aversion Income S1S1 EEE Y Y I*

19. The Workaholic’s Supply Curve Y3Y3 C A 0 E E max Income I8I7I8I7 I6I5I6I5 S I4I3I2I1I4I3I2I1 W2W2 Y2Y2 Work effort B

20. Perfectionist Orientation Defined as the strength of preference for achieving perfect outcomes at work Defined as the strength of preference for achieving perfect outcomes at work Some people have stronger preference for perfectionism than others Some people have stronger preference for perfectionism than others Has been associated with workaholism Has been associated with workaholism Spence & Robbins (1992) Spence & Robbins (1992) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997) May cause utility or disutility at work May cause utility or disutility at work Satisfaction from achieving perfect outcomes Satisfaction from achieving perfect outcomes Frustration with not getting things perfect Frustration with not getting things perfect Therefore, may shift the supply curve out, or back. Therefore, may shift the supply curve out, or back.

21. Achievement Orientation Defined as the strength of one’s preference for achieving desired results at work Defined as the strength of one’s preference for achieving desired results at work Completion of projects on time, on budget Completion of projects on time, on budget Winning formal or informal competitions Winning formal or informal competitions Gaining market share, increased profitability, etc Gaining market share, increased profitability, etc Need for achievement has long been recognized as underlying people’s motivation to excel Need for achievement has long been recognized as underlying people’s motivation to excel McClelland (1953) McClelland (1953) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997) Scott, Moore & Miceli (1997)

22. Types of Work Enthusiast TYPE Work effort Work orient’n Work enjoy. Econ orient’n Leisure orient’n Perquis. orient’n Achieve orient’n Total satisf’n Materialist Work Enthusiast HighLowHighHighHigh Low-Leisure Work Enthusiast HighLowHighLowHigh Perk-loving Work Enthusiast HighLowHighHighHigh Achieving Work Enthusiast HighLowHighHighHigh

23. Further Speculations TYPE Work effort Work orient’n Work enjoy. Econ orient’n Leisure orient’n Perquis. orient’n Achieve orient’n Total satisf’n Materialist Work Enthusiast HighLowHighHighLow?High Low-Leisure Work Enthusiast HighLowHighLowHigh?High Perk-loving Work Enthusiast HighLowHighLow?HighHigh Achieving Work Enthusiast HighLowHighLow?High?HighHigh

24. Other Worker Types Worker types Work hours Inner Drive Enjoy- ment Income orientation Leisure orientation Perquisite orientation Enthusiastic workaholic HiHiHi??Hi Work addict workaholic HiHiLo??Lo Reluctant hard worker HiLoLoHi?? Alienated professional LoHiHi?Hi? Disenchanted worker LoHiLo??Lo Relaxed worker LoLoHi??Hi Disengaged worker LoLoLo??Lo

25. Some Further Speculations Worker types Work hours Inner Drive Enjoy- ment Economic orientation Leisure orientation Perquisite orientation Enthusiastic workaholic HiHiHiHi?Lo?Hi Work addict workaholic HiHiLoLo?Lo?Lo Reluctant hard worker HiLoLoHiHi?Lo? Alienated professional LoHiHiLo?HiHi? Disenchanted worker LoHiLoLo?Hi?Lo Relaxed worker LoLoHiLo?Hi?Hi Disengaged worker LoLoLoLo?Hi?Lo

26. Summary and Conclusions Six main motivations for work have been identified and clarified: Six main motivations for work have been identified and clarified: Income, Leisure, Perquisite, Work, Perfectionist, and Achievement orientations Income, Leisure, Perquisite, Work, Perfectionist, and Achievement orientations Four types of Work Enthusiasts are identified: Four types of Work Enthusiasts are identified: Materialists, Low-leisure, Perk-loving, High-Achieving Materialists, Low-leisure, Perk-loving, High-Achieving Explanations offered for the high/low levels of work involvement and/or work enjoyment in the other worker types. Explanations offered for the high/low levels of work involvement and/or work enjoyment in the other worker types. A series of propositions offered for empirical testing A series of propositions offered for empirical testing

27. Thank you!