1. Vitamins Ruminants Fat soluble Vitamins A, D, E and K Water soluble Thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, vitamin B 12, vitamin C, choline Water soluble vitamins and vitamin K synthesized in the rumen or in body tissues Dietary requirements: Vitamins A, D, and E

2. Vitamin Nutrition of Ruminants Important 1.Some vitamins must be supplemented in the diet 2.Several aspects of vitamin nutrition unique to ruminants 3. Likely will be more important: As productivity of ruminants is increased With increased confinement of animals References 1.Chapter 7 Dairy NRC 2001 2.Chapter 6 Beef NRC 1996

3. Vitamin Requirements of Ruminants At tissue level, ruminants require the same vitamins as monogastric animals Before development of the rumen, young ruminants require dietary sources of vitamins Colostrum and milk contain the required vitamins Concentration of vitamins in colostrum is greater than in milk Calves need to be fed vitamins if they are being fed milk replacers containing appreciable nonmilk protein

4. Vitamin Requirements of Ruminants Mature ruminants have dietary requirement for: Vitamins A, D, and E Vitamin D in feed or produced in skin of animals exposed to sunlight B vitamins usually not supplemented in ruminant diets High producing dairy cows sometimes benefited from supplementation with B vitamins Mixtures of biotin, niacin, riboflaven, panothenic acid, thiamin, and B 12

5. Inadequate Dietary Vitamin Intakes Low concentrations in feeds Harvesting and agronomic effects Processing and storage effects Humidity, heat, light, pH, minerals, pelleting Reduced feed intake Bioavailability B-vitamins affected more than fat soluble Level of production Increased grain intake, increased feed intake, increased rate of passage, reduced rumen function Rearing in confinement out of sunlight Stress and disease Decreased feed intake, increased requirement

6. Factors Influencing Vitamin Stability + = stable - = unstable ( ) = tocopheryl acetate

7. Circumstances Affecting Vitamin Nutrition Vitamin antagonists of importance to ruminants Dicumarin (Dicumarol) Found in moldy sweet clover - Blocks the action of vitamin K (Depresses formation of thrombin) Rancid fats Destroys vitamins A, D, and E Thiamin antagonists Thiaminase - may develop in the rumen Amprolium blocks absroption Sulfur may destroy thiamin in the rumen

8. Situations for Supplementing Vitamins

9. Vitamin A (Retinol) Vitamin of most practical importance in ruminant feeds. Deficiency most likely: High concentrate feeds Large amounts of fermented feeds Mature - drought pastures Long stored feeds Sunlight, air, high temperatures Heavily processed feeds Some destruction of vitamin A in the rumen Increases when concentrates are fed Forage diets 20%Grain diets up to 70%

10.  -Carotene Provitamin A found in many plants Mostly in the vegetative parts of plants Decreases as plants mature Decreases with time in storage Some destruction in the rumen (0 to 35%) Converted to retinol by enzymes in intestinal mucosal cells Some absorption of  -carotene Ruminants do not efficiently convert carotene to vitamin A 1 mg carotene = 400 IU vitamin A

11. Vitamin A Deficiency Reduced feed intake - slow growth Rough hair coat Edema of joints and brisket Watery eyes Night blindness Retinol needed for synthesis of rhodopsin Low conception Still births Function of immune system

12. Vitamin A Requirements Cattle IU/kg feed DM Growing2,200 Pregnant beef cows2,800 Pregnant dairy cows4,000 Lactating cows3,900 Sheep Growing lambs1,500 Gestating ewes3,300 Lactating ewes2,700

13. Vitamin A Requirements Dairy cattle Growing: 80 IU/kg body wt Adult: 110 IU/kg body wt Supplemental Vitamin A (retinol) 1 IU of Vit A activity = 0.344 ug of all-trans retinyl acetate 0.550 ug all-trans retinyl palmitate

14. Vitamin A – When to Supplement? Carotene content of feeds is variable and usually unknown Cost of supplemental vitamin A is low – so usually should supplement Exception is animals grazing green forages Should be consuming adequate carotene Increased exposure to infectious pathogens Times when immunocompetence may be reduced

15. Vitamin A Reserves in the Body Vitamin A stored in the liver when intake of vitamin A or carotene is high Vitamin A in the liver has about 4 week half life Should not depend on more that 2 to 4 months of protection from storage of vitamin A in the liver Ruminants have a high tolerance for vitamin A Will tolerate 66,000 IU/kg feed

16. Vitamin D 1.Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D 2 ) - found in plants 2.Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D 3 ) - found in animals Photochemical conversion in skin: 7-dehydrocholesterolCholecalciferol Liver (Sequesters Vit D 3 ) Vit D 3 25-hydroxy-vit D 3 Circulating form of Vit D 3 Blood concentrations of 25-hydroxy-vit D 3 indication of vitamin D status of the animal Kindney 25-hydroxy-vit D 3 1, 25-dihydroxy-vit D 3 Active form of vitamin D Active on skeleton and intestine Potentiates action of parathyroid hormone

17. Vitamin D 3 1,25-dihydroxy-vit D 3 is active form of vitamin Low blood Ca (or P) increases parathyroid hormone secretion Parathyroid hormone increases production of 1,25-dihydroxy-vit D 3 in kidney Increases resorption of bone Ca and P Involved in: Absorption of Ca and P and mobilization of Ca and P from bone Regulation of blood Ca and P Immune cell function Reproduction of males and females

18. Vitamin D - Ruminants Deficiency Rickets in calves Swollen and stiff joints Reduced feed intake Tetany Weak bones Vitamin D can be toxic High blood Ca Calcification of soft tissues Loss of appetite Vitamin D not stored in the body in any quantity

19. Vitamin D - Requirements Requirement IU/kg Feed DM All beef cattle275 Growing lambs185 Gestating ewes216 Lactating ewes148 Lactating dairy30 IU/kg body wt Dry pregnant cows30 IU/kg body wt Generally recognized as more than required Animals fed sun cured hays and/or kept in sunlight have limited needs for supplemental vitamin D Dairy NRC does not give credit to feed and sunlight as sources of vitamin D

20. Vitamin D Toxicity Safe feeding levels: A few days - 25,000 IU/kg feed 60 days - 2,200 IU/kg feed Toxicity Loss of appetite Weight loss Reduced rumination Depression Widespread calcification of soft tissue Kidneys, heart, pancreas, lymph glands, lung alveoli Inflammation Demineralization of skeletal system

21. Feeding Mega Doses of Vitamin D Prevent milk fever 20 million IU/d starting 3 to 5 days before calving continuing through the fist day postpartum Improve tenderness of beef Assumption: Increased blood and muscle Ca increases activity of calpains, enzymes in muscle that degrade muscle myofibrils Observations: Blood Ca increased Increased degradation of myofibrils Reduced force to shear muscle

22. Feeding Mega Doses of Vitamin D Beef Tenderness Feed cattle 5 to 7 million IU/d of Vit D 3 8 to 10 days prior to harvest improves tenderness of skeletal muscle Response not consistent in all experiments Less response with increased aging of beef Accumulation of vitamin D and metabolites in tissues Reduced feed intake Loss of body weight Feeding cattle125 ug of 25-hydroxy Vit D 3 for 4 days prior to harvest may be alternative Response not consistent

23. Effect of Oral Vitamin D on Blood Ca Finished steers Last dose

24. Effect of Oral Vitamin D on Shear Force Muscle Aged 14 days

25. Effects of Mega Doses of Vitamin D on Performance OSU, 2001

26. Effect of Oral Vitamin D on Vitamin D 3 in Raw Tissues

27. Vitamin E  -tocopherol is the most common form of vitamin E in feeds Vit E content of feeds is highly variable Vit E decreases in forages with drying and storage  Most fresh forages excellent source of Vit E Most grains have low concentrations of Vit E Heat treatment destroys most of the Vit E Supplemental form of vitamin E is DL-  -tocopherol The esterified form is more stable than the alcohol Rumen metabolism is minimal 1 IU = 1 mg DL-  -tocopherol

28. Vitamin E Functions as an antioxidant and involved in Maintenance of cell membranes Immunity Reproduction Deficiency White muscle disease Weak muscles Retained placenta Reduced reproduction Reduced disease resistance Toxicity not demonstrated in ruminants Vitamin E not extensively stored in the body

29. Vitamin E - Dairy - 2001 1. Dry cows 60 days before calving 80 IU/kg feed DM Based on reduction of mastitis and immune function Higher amounts needed for fetus and to increase concentration in colostrum 2. Lactating cows 20 IU/kg feed DM Needs to be increased when poor quality forage is fed or if feeds have low Se content Supplement Se if low in soils 3 to 5 mg /d for dry cows 6 to 8 mg/d for lactating cows

30. Vitamin E - Beef & Sheep Requirement IU/kg feed DM All beef cattle 15 to 60 Pregnant and lactating cows20 Growing heifers25 All sheep15 Related to adequacy of selenium Vitamin E not transferred across placenta to fetus Dependent on colostrum for dietary source Feedlot cattle Feed 500 IU/day for 100 days. Extend shelf life of beef cuts in the sales case

31. Beef Quality Consumers judge quality of beef Appearance Bright, cherry red, associated with freshness Texture (tenderness) Flavor Color of beef Surface discoloration undesirable Important factor in consumer’s decision to purchase Pigments in beef: Deoxymyoglobin OxymoglobinMetmyoglobin (Purple) + O 2 (Cherry red) (Brown)

32. Deterioration of Beef Quality Pigment oxidation is correlated with lipid oxidation Limits: Shelf life of packaged fresh beef Storage of frozen beef Storage of precooked beef Color Flavor Palatability Off flavors

33. Role of Vitamin E in Beef Quality Cellular membranes The ring of  -tocopherol locates among the polar head groups of phospholipids and the side chain interacts with the unsaturated fatty acids of phospholipids Vitamin E functions as an antioxidant in membranes Highest tissue accumulation in adrenal, liver, pancreas, and spleen Muscle and adipose are slow to accumulate  -tocopherol Plasma concentrations not adequate indicator of accumulation in muscle

34. Vitamin E and Beef Quality Feed 500 to 1000 IU/d for 100+ days prior to harvest Increases concentration of  -tocopherol in muscle 1 ug/g to over 3.5 ug/g Will increase case life of fresh beef 3 to 4 days when aged for 7 days Less increase in case life when aged for longer periods Protection for ground beef, but less than steaks Reduced oxidation of lipids and accumulation of metmyoglobin Feeding 0.3 mg Se as an organic source did not increase muscle Se or vit E and did not decrease lipid oxidation

35. Vitamin E and Beef Quality Beef industry is moving towards “case ready” products Reduce contamination and labor Meat is packaged in modified atmosphere 80% O 2 and 20% CO 2 Fed 500 IU/d of vitamin E for 124 days Packaged and stored in dark 0 to 14 days In display case 0 to 8 days Feeding vitamin E increased display life 3 and 0.9 days for steaks and ground beef

36. Vitamin E - Stress and Immune Function Studies have been done to evaluate supplementation (500 to 1,600 IU/d) prior to weaning or in the receiving diet of feeder cattle Hypothesis: Reduce impact of stress Improve immune function Improve performance Conclusions: Data too variable to be conclusive Probably no long term benefits

37. Agrado® - Antioxidant (Ethoxyquin) May be a substitute for vitamin E for beef cattle Feed 150 ppm (150 mg/kg) Improve gain of feedlot cattle 0.16 lb/d advantage Improve feed efficiency 6.6% improvement Increase case life of beef More protective of ground beef vs steaks Improve health of stressed feeder cattle Evidence is variable

38. Vitamin K Vitamin K is a generic term describing a group of quinone compounds Phylloquinone (vitamin K 1 )  Found in chloroplasts of plants Menaquinone (vitamin K 2 )  Synthesized by rumen bacteria Menadione (vitamin K 3 )  Synthetic form used for supplementing vit K

39. Vitamin K Required for synthesis of four blood clotting factors Prothrombin, factors VII, IX, and X Involved in blood clot formation No established supplemental requirement for ruminants Microbial synthesis and vit K in feeds Deficiency limited to: Cattle consuming moldy sweet clover have prolonged clotting of blood - “sweet clover disease” A fungus produces dicoumarol that is a metabolic antagonist of vitamin K Stiffness and lameness Uncontrolled bleeding – hematoma of tissues

40. Other Water Soluble Vitamins Not required in diet of ruminants Ruminants with functional rumen obtain water soluble vitamins from the digestive tract Niacin-------- Supplementation may benefit high Biotin ---- producing animals Folic acid --- Vitamin B12 – Synthesized in rumen if Co present, not present in feeds Vitamin C - Not synthesized in cattle until about 3 wks Riboflavin Pyridoxine Pantothenic acid Choline

41. Supplementation of B Vitamins 1.Prevent overt deficiency symptoms Probably occur only in calves fed milk replacers 2. Prevent subclinical deficiencies Optimum production Impact of stress on immune system Niacin - May benefit early lactation cows Biotin - May benefit herds with high incidence of hoof lesions Folic acid - Might increase milk production Cobalt - B 12 - (methylmalonyl CoA mutase) utilization of propionate, foliate metabolism, milk yield B-vitamins - immune function of stressed cattle

42. Thiamin 1. Adequate quantities normally produced by the bacteria in the rumen 2. Inadequate thiamin Thiaminase and thiamin antimetabolites produced in ruminants fed rapidly fermented diets Infrequently polioencephalomalacia (PEM), a disorder of the central nervous system develops Retracted head, weakness, collapse, blindness are symptoms Respond to administration of thiamin

43. Thiamin It has long been speculated that feeding high levels of sulfur (greater than 0.5% of diet) will cause PEM Wet corn gluten feed contains 0.4% S (DM) PEM infrequently occurs when cattle fed corn gluten feed When thiamin is fed: 100 to 500 mg/day recommended Benefits from supplementation with thiamin are inconsistent It is recommended to feed thiamin with corn gluten feed

44. High Sulfur Feeding high amounts of sulfur: Reduces feed intake Reduces alkali reserve in the body Complexes with Cu in the digestive tract Might cause Cu deficiency Does not reduce blood thiamin Feeding sulfur causes a transient increase in hydrogen sulfide concentrations in the rumen During this time cattle are subject to a condition resembling PEM