1. “Human history in Africa is immensely long. In fact, both archaeological research and genetic studies strongly support the theory that the evolution of the modern human species (Homo sapiens sapiens) occurred in Africa.” Professor James Giblin, The University of Iowa

2. A FRICA IN THE C LASSICAL E RA Africa, during the classical era, was home to about 11% of the world’s population Africa lacked wild sheep, goats, chickens, horses and camels, but its proximity to Eurasia meant that these animals, once domesticated, became widely available to African peoples Writing was confined to the northern and northeastern parts of the continent during the classical era Classical-era civilizations in Africa were fewer in number and generally smaller than those of Eurasia

3. Large numbers of Africans lived in communities that did not feature cities and states. Stateless societies have minimal or no government involvement rather kinship relationships influence interactions.

4. G EOGRAPHICAL D IVERSITY OF A FRICA Large deserts (Sahara and Kalahari), larger savannas or grasslands, tropical rain forest in the continent’s center, highlands and mountains in eastern Africa and small regions of Mediterranean climate in the northern and southern extremes Enormous size of continent These geographic factors ensured variation and difference among Africa’s many peoples However, continent bisected by equator and therefore overall more tropical than other land masses

6. Proximity to Eurasia – allowed parts of Africa to interact with Eurasian civilizations -North Africa was incorporated into the Roman Empire and used to produce wheat and olives -Christianity spread widely, giving rise to one of the early Church’s most important theologians, Saint Augustine (354-430 CE) -Christian faith found an even more permanent foothold in the lands known today as Ethiopia Arabia was another point of contact with the larger world for African peoples -the arrival of the domesticated camel, probably from Arabia, generated a nomadic pastoral way of life among some of the Berber peoples

7. Camels made possible trans-Saharan trade, which linked interior West Africa to the world of Mediterranean civilization. Over many centuries, the East African coast was a port of call of merchants and subsequently became an integral part of Indian Ocean trading networks.

8. M EROË In the Nile Valley south of Egypt lay Nubian civilization (almost as old as Egypt) Nubians traded and fought with Egypt Borrowed heavily from Egypt but remained distinct By the classical era, Egypt fell under foreign control and Nubian civilization came to center on the southern city of Meroë Flourished between 300 BCE and 100 CE Governed by an all powerful and sacred monarch, a position sometimes conferred on women

10. A wide variety of economic specialties – merchants, weavers, potters, and masons But the smelting of iron and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons were especially prominent industries Rainfall-based agriculture was possible -Rural population did not need to concentrate so heavily along the Nile -Less directly controlled from capital since state authorities were not required to supervise an irrigation system serving a dense population along the river Long-distance trading connections to the north via the Nile and east and west by camel caravans led to prosperity

12. Meroë had a reputation for great riches in the classical world of northeastern Africa and the Mediterranean.

13. In the centuries following 100 CE, the Kingdom of Meroë declined, in part because of deforestation caused by the need for wood to make charcoal for smelting iron The effective end of the Meroë phase of Nubian civilization came with the kingdom’s conquest in the 340s CE by the neighboring state of Axum In the centuries that followed Coptic (Egyptian) Christianity penetrated the region with Greek as a liturgical language After 1300 or so, political division, Arab immigration, and the penetration of Islam eroded this Christian civilization, and Nubia became part of the growing world of Islam

15. A XUM Axum lay in the Horn of Africa, in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia Highly productive agriculture that used a plow- based farming system, unlike most of the rest of Africa, which relied on the hoe or digging stick -Generated substantial amounts of wheat, barley, millet, and teff, a highly nutritious grain unique to region Around 50 CE, a substantial state had emerged, stimulated by its participation in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean commerce

16. At Adulis, then the largest port on the East African coast, a wide range of merchants sought the products of the African interior – animal hides, rhinoceros horn, ivory, obsidian, tortoiseshells, and slaves.

17. Taxes on trade provided a major source of revenue for the Axumite state and the complex society that grew up within it.

18. The interior capital city, also known as Axum, was a center of monumental building and royal patronage of the arts -The most famous of these were hug stone obelisks, which most likely marked royal graves -Some of these obelisks were more than 100 feet tall -At the time, were the largest structures in the world hewn from a single piece of rock Language used at court, in towns, and for commerce was Geez, written in a script derived from South Arabia The Axumite state exercised a measure of control over the mostly Agaw-speaking people of the country through a loose administrative structure and the collection of tribute payments.

19. To the Romans, Axum was the third major empire within the world they knew, following their own and the Persian Empire.

20. Through its connections to Red Sea trade and the Roman world, particularly Egypt, Axum was introduced to Christianity in the fourth century CE Its monarch at the time, King Ezana, adopted the new religion about the same time as Constantine did in the Roman Empire Christianity took root in Axum, linking that kingdom religiously to Egypt, where a distinctive Christian church known as Coptic was already well established -Although Egypt became largely Islamic, Christianity maintained a dominant position in the mountainous terrain of highland Ethiopia and still represents the faith of perhaps half of the country’s population.

21. During the fourth through the sixth century CE, Axum mounted a campaign of imperial expansion that took its forces into the Kingdom of Meroë and across the Red Sea into Yemen in South Arabia.

22. The next several centuries were ones of decline for Axum due to soil exhaustion, erosion, and deforestation brought about by intensive farming as well as the rise of Islam which altered trade routes and diminished revenue available to Axum Its last coins were struck in the early seventh century

23. In the middle stretches of the Niger River in West Africa, the classical era witnessed the emergence of a remarkable urbanization A prolonged dry period during the five centuries after 500 BCE, brought growing numbers of people from the southern Sahara into the fertile floodplain of the middle Niger in search of more reliable access to water Created a distinctive city-based civilization -City of Jenne-jeno -But apparent absence of a corresponding state structure -Operated without the coercive authority of a state -Emerged as clusters of economically specialized settlements

24. T HE B ANTU In Africa south of the equator, the most significant development of the classical era involved the accelerating movement of the Bantu-speaking peoples into the subcontinent Had begun many centuries earlier from a homeland region in what is now southeastern Nigeria and the Cameroons The movement of peoples generated some 400 distinct but closely related languages, known collectively as Bantu By the first century CE, agricultural peoples speaking Bantu languages occupied the forest regions of equatorial Africa

25. The spread of Bantu peoples was a slow movement that brought Africa south of the equator a measure of cultural and linguistic commonality, marking it as a distinct region -kinship structures -ancestral or nature spirits -belief in witches -diviners, skilled in penetrating the world of the supernatural

26. Farming largely replaced foraging -Agriculture generated a more productive economy -Farmers brought with them both parasitic and infectious diseases to which foragers had little immunity -Iron was another advantage the Bantu migrants had Bantu migrants also brought a common set of cultural and social practices

27. S TRAYER Q UESTIONS How did the history of Meroë and Axum reflect interaction with neighboring civilizations? How does the experience of the Niger Valley challenge conventional notions of "civilization"? In what ways did the arrival of Bantu-speaking peoples stimulate cross-cultural interaction?

28. “Nya b’a’n tu’n t-xi tca’yin muj ku’n nlayx b’et tak’in. It is not good to look at the clouds or your work will not progress.” Mayan king Pacal Mayan proverb Collected and translated into Spanish by Feliciano P. Eberardo English translations from Spanish by Carl Rubino

29. C IVILIZATIONS OF M ESOAMERICA The Atlantic and Pacific oceans ensured that the cultures of the Western Hemisphere had long operated in a world apart from their Afro- Eurasian counterparts Nor were the cultures of the Americas stimulated by the kind of fruitful interaction among their own civilizations that played a vital role in the Eastern Hemisphere due to geographic barriers Achievements occurred without large domesticated animals or iron-working technologies that were important in the Eastern Hemisphere

30. Mesoamerica, stretching from central Mexico to northern Central America, was geographically diverse (rain forests, highland plateaus, mountains, and valleys) and had substantial linguistic and ethnic diversity.

31. But shared an intensive agricultural technology -Maize, beans, chili peppers, squash Also shared economies based on market exchanges, polytheistic religions, belief in a cosmic cycle of creation and destruction, human sacrifice, monumental ceremonial centers, a common ritual calendar of 260 days, and hieroglyphic writing During the first millennium BCE, Olmec civilization (a “mother civilization” of Mesoamerica) engaged in trade thereby leading to the diffusion of aspects of its culture throughout Mesoamerica

33. T HE M AYA Major classical civilization of Mesoamerica Scholars trace beginnings to ceremonial centers constructed as early as 2000 BCE in present-day Guatemala and the Yucatán region of Mexico But it was the during the classical phase of Maya civilization, between 250 and 900 CE, that their most notable achievements occurred -Mathematical system with concept of zero -Place notations in math, capable of complex calculations -Careful observation of night skies to plot the cycle of the plants

35. -Maya could predict eclipses of the sun and moon -Constructed elaborate calendars -Calculated accurately the solar year -Creation of the most elaborate writing system in the Americas -Temples, pyramids, palaces, and public plazas abounded -By 600 CE, the Maya drained swamps, terraced hillsides, flattened ridge tops, and constructed an elaborate water management system -Supported a rapidly growing and dense population by 750 CE -Highly fragmented political system of city-states, local lords, and regional kingdoms with no central authority

36. The Maya engaged in frequent warfare with the extensive capture and sacrifice of prisoners.

37. Densely populated urban and ceremonial centers ruled by powerful kings who were divine rulers mediating between humankind and the supernatural One Maya city, Tikal, contained around 50,000 people with another 50,000 or so in the surrounding countryside by 750 CE But no Maya city-state succeeded in creating a unified Maya empire More closely resembled the competing city-states of ancient Mesopotamia or classical Greece than the imperial structures of Rome, Persia, or China Collapsed with completeness rare in world history Drought in 840 CE led to drop in population

38. A drought in 840 led to a drop of 85% or more of the population in the low-lying southern heartland of the Maya. The great cities were deserted.

39. T EOTIHUACÁN At roughly the same time of as the Maya flourished, the giant city of Teotihuacán, to the north in the Valley of Mexico, thrived Begun around 150 BCE and built to a plan A population between 100,000 and 200,000 Largest urban complex in Americas Much is unknown about the city But broad avenues, spacious plazas, huge marketplaces, temples, palaces, apartment complexes, slums, waterways, reservoirs, drainage systems, and colorful murals

40. Along the main north/south boulevard, now known as the Street of the Dead, were the grand homes of the elite, the headquarters of state authorities, many temples, and two giant pyramids.

41. Off the main avenues, the streets are in a grid- like pattern But the art of Teotihuacán, unlike that of the Maya, has revealed few images of self-glorifying rulers or individuals The city did not have a tradition of written public inscriptions as the Maya did but a number of glyphs or characters suggest at least a limited form of writing The city cast a huge shadow over Mesoamerica, particularly from 300 to 600 CE A core region of perhaps 10,000 square miles was administered directly from the city itself, while tribute was exacted from other areas At least one Maya city was completely taken over

42. Another center of civilization in the Americas lay in the Andes.

43. C HAVÍN Around 900 BCE, located in the Andean highlands at a village called Chavín de Huántar -High in the Andes -Situated on trade routes to both the coastal region to the west and the Amazon rain forest to the east An elaborate temple complex Major deities were represented as jaguars, crocodiles, and snakes Shamans made use of the San Pedro cactus and its hallucinogenic properties to penetrate the supernatural world

44. Chavín became a pilgrimage site and possibly a training center for initiates from distant centers. Much of the spread of Chavín religious imagery and practice paralleled the trade routes and while a widespread religious cult provided a measure of integration, there was no Chavín empire.

45. M OCHE Dominating a 250-mile stretch of Peru’s northern coast, Moche civilization flourished between about 100 and 800 CE Economy rooted in a complex irrigation system Governed by warrior-priests, some of whom lived atop huge pyramids Moche culture was one of war, ritual, and diplomacy However, fragile environmental foundations, subject to periodic drought, earthquakes, and occasional torrential rains associated with El Niño episodes

46. In these circumstances, the Moche were vulnerable to aggressive neighbors and possibly social tensions as well. But the Chavín and Moche civilizations were but two of the many that grew up in the Andes region before the Incas consolidated the entire area into a single empire.

47. The peoples of the Americas in the pre- Columbian era might be divided into three large groups -Most prominent and well-known are those of the Mesoamerican and Andean regions, where cities, states, and dense populations created civilizations broadly similar to classical Eurasia -Elsewhere, gathering and hunting peoples carried on ancient human adaptations to the environment -Semi-sedentary people in the eastern woodlands of the United States, Central America, the Amazon basin, and the Caribbean islands engaged in agriculture but less intensive and supporting smaller populations

48. In Chaco canyon in what is now northwestern New Mexico, between 860 and 1130 CE, five major pueblos emerged.

49. Unlike the Chaco region in the southwest, the eastern woodlands of North America and especially the Mississippi River valley hosted an independent Agricultural Revolution. By 2000 BCE, domesticated local plant species but these few plants were not sufficient to support a fully settled agricultural village life. Gathering and hunting was needed to supplement diets.

50. S TRAYER Q UESTIONS With what Eurasian civilizations might the Maya be compared? In what ways did Teotihuacán shape the history of Mesoamerica? What kind of influence did Chavín exert in the Andes region? What supports scholars' contention that Moche represented a regional civilization in the Andes?