1. CSC321 Making a Computer Binary number system → Boolean functions Boolean functions → Combinational circuits Combinational circuits → Sequential circuits Sequential/Combinational circuits → Functional units Functional units → Computer architecture

2. CSC321 Defining a Computer Computer Architecture –Bus –Registers –Register transfer language –Microoperations –Instruction set –Timing and control

3. CSC321 Instruction Set Instruction (Assembly language statement) –Binary code –Consists of an operation code and operand(s) –Specifies a sequence of microoperations to be executed One high level language (e.g. C++/Java) statement specifies a sequence of instructions –Stored in memory –Note that we are talking about a level higher than RTL but lower than Java, C++, etc.

4. CSC321 Exercise Start Visual Studio.NET Select “New Project” –Visual C++ Projects Win32 Console Application –Type in a project name (e.g. AssemblyExample) –Browse to a directory (e.g. Desktop) –Press “OK” –Press “Finish”

5. CSC321 Exercise Modify your main function to look like this: int _tmain(int argc, _TCHAR* argv[]) { int x, y; x = 1; y = 2; x = x + y; return 0; }

6. CSC321 Exercise Set a break-point on the “int x, y;” line by clicking on that line and pressing F9 –A red circle should appear to the left of the line Run the program by pressing F5 and answering “yes” to the question Open the Debug menu –Select Windows → Disassembly –Select Windows → Registers

7. CSC321 Exercise In the Watch1 window (lower left) select an empty line (turns blue) and type &x In the Watch1 window (lower left) select an empty line (turns blue) and type &y In the Memory1 window (select tab) enter the smaller of the two hexadecimal numbers next to the &x and &y into the Address field If you want to see the binary (hex) codes for the instructions type an instruction address (next to an assembly language instruction) into the Memory1 window’s address field –Notice that instructions are of varying lengths

8. CSC321 Exercise Note the value of the EIP register in the Registers window – it matches the value next to the yellow arrow at the left of the assembly code Press F10 and watch the Memory1 window Press F10 again and watch the Memory1 window Press F10 again and watch the EAX register Press F10 again and watch the Memory1 window

9. CSC321 Exercise What you witnessed was the modification of Pentium processor registers and memory as it executed individual assembly language instructions Note that the Pentium assembly language is extremely complex as it is a powerful processor If you want to learn more, manuals can be downloaded from http://developer.intel.com/design/pentium4/manuals/253665.ht m

10. Basic Computer The following discussions are based on a fictitious computer called “Basic Computer” by the author of the textbook It’s a much better way to learn computer architecture concepts than trying to understand the Intel Pentium architecture

11. Assembly Language Every computer architecture (or family of architectures) has its own unique assembly language Unlike Java, you should not learn assembly language syntax, data types, etc. You should learn to program/think at the assembly language level –It’s a way of thinking that requires intimate knowledge of the underlying hardware architecture

12. Assembly Language Instructions Each instruction has two basic parts –Operation code (opcode) What the instruction wants the processor to do –Operand(s) (registers, memory addresses) Data location that the instruction wants the processor to manipulated Some operands will be explicit while others will be implicit (implied by the opcode)

13. Assembly Language Instructions n-bit instruction format Example – 16 bit instruction opcodeoperand/address 0m+1mn-1 opcodeoperand/address 0121115 2 (n-1)-(m+1) opcodes 2 (m+1) addresses 2 4 = 16 opcodes 2 12 =4096 addresses

14. Assembly Language Instructions Instructions within the same Assembly language may be of differing lengths –i.e. not all instructions utilize the same number of bits as we saw with the Pentium

15. Internal Operation To execute an assembly language instruction the processor goes through 4 steps –Fetch an instruction from memory –Decode the instruction –Read the operands from memory/registers –Execute the instruction This is often referred to as the Fetch-Execute cycle or the Instruction cycle To execute a program the processor repeats this cycle until a halt instruction is reached

16. Internal Operation All this is under the control of the Control Unit This is the component that decodes the instruction and sends out microoperations to the rest of the hardware –The control unit can be hardwired Made up entirely of sequential circuits designed to do precisely the fetch-execute steps – fixed instruction set –The control unit can be microprogrammed A small programmable processor within the processor – programmable instruction set More on this later

17. Addressing Modes In designing a computer architecture the designer must specify the instruction set –Opcode/operand pairs In specifying operands there are a number of alternatives –Immediate instructions –Direct address operands –Indirect address operands

18. Immediate Instruction The 2 nd part of the instruction is the operand (rather than the address of the operand) An example might be an instruction that adds a constant to a register add 3 –The “3” is the value we want to add, not an address in memory

19. Direct Address Instruction The 2 nd part of the instruction is the memory address of operand An example might be an instruction that adds a value in memory to a register add 0x30213 –The “0x30213” is the memory address of the value that we want to add

20. Indirect Address Instruction The 2 nd part of the instruction is the memory address of the location that holds the memory address of the operand An example might be an instruction that adds a value in memory to a register add 0x30213 –The “0x30213” is a memory address that holds the memory address of the value that we want to add

21. Addressing Modes Iopcodeaddress 0addc3 0add0x331add0x33 0x42 0x33 0x42 0x33 0x88 0x42 Operand Immediate DirectIndirect Mode bit

22. Addressing Modes The term effective address refers to the actual address of the operand –For the previous example Immediate address mode –Effective address is the instruction itself Direct address mode –Effective address is the memory location 0x33 Indirect addressing mode –Effective address is the memory location 0x42

23. Addressing Modes Something in the instruction word will specify which addressing mode is applicable –The operand itself (for immediate instructions) –A designated bit (for direct vs. indirect address instructions)

24. Addressing Modes Indirect addressing is a convenient way to implement arrays (which are nothing more than pointers to blocks of contiguous memory) Some architectures define additional modes such as “read location then increment” –These are all derivations of the three defined here

25. Registers In designing a computer architecture the designer must specify the register set There are essentially two categories –Special purpose registers –General purpose registers

26. Special Purpose Registers Program Counter (PC) –Holds the memory address of the next instruction of our program Memory Address Register (AR) –Holds the address of a location in memory that we want to access (read/write) The size of (number of bits in) these two registers is determined by the number of memory addresses in our architecture

27. Special Purpose Registers Instruction Register (IR) –Holds the instruction (opcode/operand) we are about to execute Data Register (DR) –Holds the operand read from memory to be sent to the ALU Accumulator (AC) –Holds an input to the ALU and the output from the ALU

28. Special Purpose Registers Input Register (INPR) –Holds data received from a specified external device Output Register (OUTR) –Holds data to be sent to a specified external device

29. General Purpose Registers Temporary Register (TR) –For general usage either by our program or the architecture

30. Registers These registers (shown previously) are specified for the fictitious architecture given in the textbook All architectures will have these in some form Most architectures will have more than just these –More general purpose registers –Stack pointers –Interrupts –Program status bits –Multiple I/O ports –Timers –etc. To effectively program the architecture (in assembly language) you need to be aware of all the available registers and their usage High level language compilers possess this knowledge

31. Bus In designing a computer architecture the designer must specify the bus layout –The size of the bus (in bits) –What is connected to the bus –Access control to the bus Recall that a bus is an efficient alternative to lots of wires when it comes to transferring data between registers, control units, and memory locations

32. Bus Architecture Memory unit 4096x16 AR PC DR AC INPR IR TR OUTR ALU E 16-bit Bus address clock S2S2 S1S1 S0S0 111 001 010 011 100 101 110 Access Select