1. Interactions in Long Term Memory »Scripts »False memory ◊Misinformation effect ◊Source misattribution ◊Memory and confidence ◊Repressed and recovered memory »Autobiographical memories ◊Very Long Term Memory ◊Real World Memories ◊Emotion and Memories –Flashbulb memories Study Questions. Compare and contrast misinformation effects with retroactive interference. According to research, what do you expect will happen to your knowledge of Cognitive Psychology over the next several years? 10/24/2015

2. Interactions in Long Term Memory Propositions »Empirical support for propositional theory ◊Content memory vs. technical memory ◊Sachs (1967) –Participants listened to story –Four test sentences Identical: Test sentence was identical He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist Formal: Form was different, meaning preserved He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist a letter about it Voice: Changed from active to passive voice A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist Semantic: The meaning was changed Galileo, the great Italian scientist sent him a letter about it

3. Interactions in Long Term Memory Propositions »Empirical support for propositional theory ◊Content memory vs. technical memory ◊Sachs (1967)

4. Interactions in Long Term Memory Propositions »Other Empirical Support ◊The fan effect ◊Propositions versus images

5. Interactions in Long Term Memory Propositions »Propositions versus images ◊Richman et al. (1979)

6. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts - » Large scale semantic and episodic knowledge structures that guide comprehension »Thorndyke (1975) 1.Story=>Setting + Theme + Plot + Resolution 2.Setting=>Characters + Location + Time 3.Theme=> (Event) + Goal 4.Plot=> Episode 5.Episode=> Subgoal + Attempts + Outcome 6.Attempt =>Event episode 7.Outcome=>Event state 8.Resolution=>Event state 9.Subgoal; goal=>Desired state 10.Characters; location; Time=>Stative (rather than active)

7. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »Schank & Abelson (1977) ◊Headers: Words that activate a script –E.g., Menu, Waiter, etc. activate restaurant script –Two headers will ‘prime’ a script ◊Frames: details about specific events in the script ◊Default value: the common, typical concept that occupies a frame –Unmentioned details get filled in with default values ◊Cognitive ergonomics

8. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »Bower et al. (1977) ◊Asked people to write down component actions of scripts ◊Determined which were most central or typical »When events happen that are not in a script, they can be either: ◊More salient and more likely to be remembered –if they are important story events that interrupt the usual routine of the script E.g., The waiter spills coffee. (restaurant script) ◊Less salient and less likely to be remembered –if they are largely irrelevant “asides” E.g., The was a picture of a flower on the menu. (restaurant script)

9. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »Bower, Black & Turner (1979) ◊Participants read 18 stories based on scripts ◊1, 2, or 3 stories based on each script (I.e., 3 versions ) ◊Not all actions or events included in each story ◊Recognition test for memory for stories

10. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »Bower, Black & Turner (1979) Scripted Events Stated Not StatedOther No. of Scripts 1 5.46 3.91 1.71 2 5.40 4.62 1.76 3 5.59 4.81 1.86 Recognition: 7-point Scale, 1=sure new, 7=sure old

11. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »Smith & Graesser (1981) ◊Memory for typical and atypical script actions ◊Found better memory for atypical events »The Script-Pointer-Plus-Tag theory ◊When a script is activated: –store script in episodic memory –script represents both stated and inferred typical events –“tag on” atypical actions of story to script

12. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »The Script-Pointer-Plus-Tag theory ◊Connolly, Hockley & Pratt (1996) –presented 6 different stories based on scripted routines –typical and atypical actions presented 0-4 times –surprise frequency test - subjects asked to judge how often different actions were presented

13. Interactions in Long Term Memory Scripts »Connolly, Hockley & Pratt (1996) Mean Frequency Estimates 4 3 2 1 0 Actual Frequency 1234 0 Typical Atypical

14. Interactions in Long Term Memory False Memory »Roediger’s False memory effect

15. 1.(8 X 6) / 3 = 2.(3 + 7 - 2) X 3 = 3.4 / (2 + 2) + 3 = 4.(6 + 3)/3 + 2 = 5.(23 - 17) X (32 - 15) = 6.(9 + 2 + 3) - (4 + 2 + 5) = 7.(3 X ( 3 X ( 2 + 1))) = 8.(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) X 10% = 9.33 X 37 = 10. 44 X 46 =

16. 1.Road 2.Chilly 3.Chess 4.Poison 5.Cake 6.Gravel 7.King 8.Bottom 9.Charred 10. Crown 11.Rough 12.Robber 13.Animal 14.Steep 15.Piano 16.Spider 17.Boards 18.Palace 19.Soccer 20.Crawl

17. Interactions in Long Term Memory False Memory »Roediger’s False memory effect 100 50 NonstudiedStudy Arithmetic Study recall Proportion “Yes” Lure Words List Words

18. Interactions in Long Term Memory False Memory »Leading Questions ◊Loftus & Palmer (1974) –View a film of a car accident. –Tested one week later with different verbs: ◊How fast was the red car going when it the other car? Smashed: 40.8 mph, contact: 31.8 mph ◊One week later, asked if there had been broken glass (there was not) Smashed: 32 % - Yes, contact: 14 % - Yes »Memory Impairment: A genuine change or alteration in memory of an experienced event as a function of some later event

19. Interactions in Long Term Memory False Memory »Misinformation Effect ◊A tendency to remember misinformation ◊The question about “smashed” was not just a leading question, it was a source of misleading information ◊Tools, faces, ages, body size, vehicles, signs, etc. ◊As interference

20. Interactions in Long Term Memory False Memory »Source Misattribution: error in identifying the true source of a memory »Misinformation Acceptance: accepting that additional information was part of the original memory »Confidence and accuracy ◊There is little or no relationship between memory accuracy and confidence ◊Juror instructions

21. Interactions in Long Term Memory False Memory »Stronger memory distortions ◊Repeated exposure ◊Repeated recall of false information ◊Repeated questioning ◊Imagery/hypnosis ◊Occur even when warned about them »Repressed and recovered memory

22. Autobiographical Memory Episodic vs. Autobiographical memory »Autobiographical memory: The study of one’s lifetime collection of personal memories. »The lab meets the real world ◊Ecological validity of cognitive research, revisited »Pertinence of studying autobiographical memory 1.Refers to self 2.Contains memory for very long term events 3.Contains an emotional component

23. Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical memory and the self »The self-reference effect »Self schema ◊Facilitates retrieval ◊Biases retrieval

24. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Bahrick et al. (1975) ◊400 participants aged 17-74 yrs ◊Graduated between 2 wks and 57 yrs earlier –Various memory tasks concerning graduating high school class –Recognition & Matching Names & pictures –Recall Free and picture cued recall

25. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Bahrick et al. (1975): Recall

26. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Bahrick et al. (1975): Recognition

27. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »VLTM for spanish (Bahrick, 1884) ◊Maintenance of Spanish over 50 years ◊773 participants (learned Spanish in high school) ◊Tested on –Reading comprehension –Recall and recognition –Vocabulary, grammar and idioms ◊Findings –Sharpest decline in first 3 yrs –Then stable for 30 yrs –“permastore”

28. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »VLTM for Cognitive Psychology (Conway et al., 1991) ◊373 students who completed Cog. Psych. course up to 12 years prior. ◊Tested on various items –General and specific facts –Names –Research methods –Concepts and concept grouping

29. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Recognitition (Conway et al., 1991)

30. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Recall (Conway et al., 1991)

31. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Real world memories ◊Linton (1982) –Episodic experiences over 6 yrs –Wrote down 2 or more events on a card every day –Every month randomly selected a card Attempted to recall and set date –Found that forgetting was a linear function of time 5 % drop in recall each year.

32. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Real world memories ◊Thematic life events (Schulster, 1989) –Attended the Metropolitan Opera for 25 yrs. –Attempted to recall 284 performances –Found a recency and primacy effect –“Significant” performances were better remembered

33. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Real world memories ◊Wagenaar, 1986 –Recorded 2400 daily events over six years –Four cue types: What/Who/Where/When/ –Found pleasant events were better remembered at short intervals

34. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Memory and Emotion ◊Emotional events –Trigger amygdala, production of ACl –Consolidates memory –Raises overall arousal i.e., general processing resourses –Focusses attention Central vs. peripheral remembering “weapon focus”

35. Autobiographical Memory Very Long Term Memory »Memory and Emotion ◊Flashbulb memory –Brown & Kulik (1977) JFK assassination –People seem to remember a lot of detail, but is it accurate? –Neisser & Harsh (1992) Interviewed students one day after Columbia explosion Re-interviewed three years later, asking the same questions Very little agreement with original answers Consequentiality, I.e., personal relevance.