2. Failed, because: Discriminability alone is not enough; code on speech needs to be compatible with speech. Minimally, must have the speed of speech. Lessons: A useful reading machine would have to (i) produce speech, (ii) be based on letter identity, not shape scan text with stylus, arbitrary complex sounds, 1 per letter shape The Challenge of a Reading Machine for the Blind (1944) optophone Reading machine conception, 1969

3. Frequency (Hz) Time (s) The spectrogram and the pattern-playback

4. Context-conditioned variability of speech perception Nothing means something Different things mean the same thing The same thing means different things context-conditioned variability originally the problem, ultimately the solution

5. a b g time ƒrequency “BAG” Co-articulation of gestures produces acoustic variability Is speech perceived by reference to how it is produced? Invariance is in articulation, not acoustics Object of perception is gesture, not sound producing any single phoneme involves ≈ 70 motor invariance must be abstract given that motor commands are variable 70 muscles of speech articulation phonation respiration

6. Dynamics of self-organization, intrinsic timing, articulatory phonology Basic phonological unit: articulatory gesture, a dynamical system with a characteristic set of parameter values. tract variables articulators constrictions variable in location, degree “planning” dynamics “execution” dynamics coordinate transformation An utterance: an ensemble of potentially overlapping gestural units intended gestures articulatory dynamics perceive gestures [Phonetic Module]

7. habituation continues habituation dishabituation No. of Sucks per minute Time 3 mos Categorical Speech Perception in Infants Initial babbling: all phonemes (Dutch, Zulu, Farsi, …) La La La 1st year Ra La 8 mos No. of Sucks per minute Time La La La Ra La habituation Experiment with Japanese babies: Growing sensitivity to native phonemes and insensitivity to non-native phonemes La ≠ Ra La  Ra

8. Can’t distinguish letters, a visual perception problem? Can’t register order of letters and words, a visual representation problem? Can’t scan letters and words properly, an eye control problem? Why might a child have difficulty reading? Can’t hear the sound contrasts that distinguish words, an auditory perception problem? Can’t link letters to their speech sounds, an associative learning problem? Can’t learn the spelling rules, an (English) orthography problem?

9. /b/ /a/ /g/ “BAG” time ƒrequency sound energy /a/ throughout /b/ first 2/3 /g/ last 2/3 /a/, /b/, /g/ overlap in middle Haskins’s answer: reading is hard because speech is easy Can’t explicitly segment words into phonemes, a phonological awareness problem? Would-be-reader’s challenge: Gain awareness that spoken words break apart into distinct abstract segments (phonemes) Then: Has basis for learning that letters stand for phonemes—the meaningless elements that make up the words of the spoken language. The Alphabet Principle

10. Does phonology’s role in reading depend on the writing system? (orthographic depth hypothesis; Serbo-Croatian, Hebrew, English, Chinese) Phonological Coherence Hypothesis Universal Phonological Principle word or nonword? fluent bi- alphabetical reader

11. component circuits, hypothesized roles phonological semantic visual word form Can we reveal the reading network through fMRI and related tools? Can we reveal improvement in an under-engaged network with training? Normal Dyslexic rhyming task phonological training

12. Most of the major suspects!