1. Chapter 13, Gender Defining Sex and Gender
Sex Differences: Nature or Nurture?
The Social Construction of Gender
Gender Stratification
Gender and Diversity
Theories of Gender
Gender and Social Change

2. Defining Sex and Gender
Sex refers to biological identity.
Gender refers to the socially learned expectations associated with members of each sex.

3. Biological and Social Sex Identity
Biology alone does not determine gender identity.
When fetal sexual differentiation is compromised, biological sex identity is unclear.
Transgendered people indicate that there is no fixed relationship between biological and social outcomes.

4. Sources of Gender Socialization
Parents
Childhood play and games
Schools
Religion
Media

5. The Price of Conformity
Conformity to gender expectations has negative consequences:
Women are denied access to power, influence, achievement, and independence.
Men are denied nurturing, emotional, and other-oriented world. 

6. Characteristics of Societies With Gender Equality
Women’s work is central to the economy.
Women have access to education.
Ideological or religious support for gender inequality is weak.

7. Characteristics of Societies With Gender Equality
Men contribute to housework and childcare.
Work is not highly sex-segregated.
Women have access to formal power and authority.

8. Women’s Worth: Still Unequal
Women who work full-time earn on average 74% of what men earn.
Women’s labor force participation rate in 1997 was 60%, compared with 75% of men.
2/3 of mothers are now in the labor force.
Women work to support themselves or their family or to bring in extra money.

9. Explaining the Pay Gap
Human capital theory - age, experience, education, marital status and hours worked influence worth in the labor market.
Dual labor market theory - women and men earn different amounts because they tend to work in different segments of the labor market.

10. Explaining the Pay Gap
Overt discrimination - white men use their power to perpetuate their advantage over women and racial minorities, through labor union practices, legislation, harassment, and intimidation.

11. Explanations of Gender Segregation
Gender socialization
Glass ceiling to advancement
Women’s family responsibilities

12. Theories of Gender
Functionalism - socialization into prescribed roles is the major impetus behind inequality.
Conflict theorists - women are disadvantaged by power inequalities that are built into the social structure.
Symbolic interaction theory - gender is produced through interaction and interpretations.

13. Feminist Theory: 4 Frameworks
Liberal feminism - gender socialization contributes to inequality because it is through learned customs that inequality is perpetuated.
Socialist feminism - the system of capitalism is the origin of women's oppression.

14. Feminist Theory: 4 Frameworks
Radical feminism - patriarchy is the primary cause of women's oppression.
Multiracial feminism - developed new avenues of theory for guiding the study of race, class, and gender.

15.  Legislative Changes
Legislation can promote change, but cannot guarantee change:
The Equal Pay Act of 1963
Civil Rights Bill of 1964
Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972