1. Semantics
LI Nathalie F. Martin

2. Table of Content CONCEPT, REFERENT AND FORM SEMANTICS
SEMANTIC RELATIONS AMONG WORDS
THE –NYMS
AMBIGUITY (REVIEW OF TEXT - STAGEBERG)
MEANING
MEANING OF WORDS THROUGH TIME

3. References References:
A Concise Introduction to Linguistics (Rowe & Levine, 2009; )
Contemporary Linguistic Analysis (O’Grady & Archibald, 2009, p )
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D. Oaks, 1998)

4. Semantics

5. Definition: Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic expressions, such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

6. What is the Meaning of These words?
Cold
Old
Fine
Cool
Fly
Behind
Accent
Nobody
This
Getting in touch
Choose a word and write it’s definition

7. Dictionary Definition: Explaining Meaning

8. CONTEXT is Key !
– Certain aspects of meaning change with the ____________________________
Nobody bought milk (store owner vs. room mates)
X is old: “old” means different things depending on what X is (person, food, currency, place, friend…)
Context is therefore very important!!
Can you think of words or expressions that have more than one definition depending on the context?

9. Two types of semantics:
_____________: meaning of words
_____________: meaning of utterances larger than words

10. Semantic Relations Among Words
THE –NYMS:
HYPONYM, HYPERNYM AND COHYPONYM
SYNONYM AND PARASYNONYMS
ANTONYMS
POLYSEMY
HOMONYM
Homonyms
Homophone
Homographs

11. Web of words – Relations Among Words

12. 1. Hyponyms (Semantic Relations among Words)
Hyponyms and hypernyms
Hyponymy: Words whose meanings are _________instances of a more general word, e.g. isosceles and equilateral are hyponyms of the word triangle.
Hyponyms and cohyponyms

13. 1. Hyponyms (Semantic Relations among Words)
Let’s organize these words:
Dance (verb)
Salsa
Exercice
Tango

14. 2. Synonyms (Semantic Relations among Words)

15. 2. Synonyms (Semantic Relations among Words)
Synonymy: words that have the ____ meanings, e.g. start & begin.

16. 2. Parasynonyms (Semantic Relations among Words)
Parasynonymy: words that have _____________ meanings, e.g. stool & bench.

17. Synonyms or Parasynonyms?
Do they really have the same meanings?
Are they interchangable?
Vacation = holidays
Youth = adolescent
Remember = recall
Purchase = buy
Big = large

18. Synonyms & Parasynonyms
Pride and Prejudice, a screenplay by Deborah Moggach
The danger of parasynonyms and over-extension
Chapter 3 : 20 minutes into the movie

19. 3. Antonyms Converse Reversive
a. Gradable vs Ungradable (or complementary)
b. RELATIONAL:
Converse
Reversive

20. Antonymy: words that are ________ in meanings, e.g. hot & cold.
Antonyms vs Synonyms
Antonymy: words that are ________ in meanings, e.g. hot & cold.
Synonymy or Antonymy
Flourish – thrive
Intelligent – stupid
Casual – informal
Flog – whip
Drunk – sober
synonym
antonym

21. a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms
Complementary
Grading involves _________. When we compare two or more objects.
Do the objects have the property to the same ______or not:
… cold cool warm hot …
Gradable: “cold” and “colder”
The weather is much colder this week than last week.
Ungradable: “male”
٭John is as much male as Peter.
٭John is more male than Peter.

22. a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms (continued)
Complementary
Exception:
Normal language behavior: ungradable antonyms can sometimes be graded in speech.
Example
John is more of a bachelor than Daniel (i.e. more determined never to get married, partying, had never had a stable girlfriend, etc.)
I am more alive now than ever (i.e. feeling more energetic, satisfied with my life, etc).

23. b. Relational: Conversives
There is a __________between both. Without one you don’t have the other.
Examples:
Husband – wife
Doctor – patient
Master – mistress
Before - after
Above – below, etc.
Often used to speak of reciprocal social roles, temporal and spatial relations.

24. c. Relational: Reversives
Another term: _____________.
Examples:
Go up – go down
Come - go
Arrive – depart
Married – divorced
You can reverse one by doing the other.
Common feature: implication of _____in one of the two opposite directions _ _____________

25. Mind Mapping

26. Antonyms (review) Gradable or Complementary? (too, more, less, etc.)
Relational:
Conversive? (different points of view)
Reversives? (one can reverse the other)

27. Opposing Polysemy & homonymy

28. 4. Polysemy /pɒlisimi, pəlɪsəmi/ Semantic Relations among Words
Polysemy: A word which has ___or more _______meanings
e.g. bright: ‘bright light’ ; ‘bright colors’
A words' etymology is helpful in determining polysemy

29. 5. Homonymy /həmɒnəmi/ Semantic Relations among Words
Homonymy: A word which has __ or more _____________meanings
Ex: Club:
‘a social organization’ ;
‘a blunt weapon’.

30. Identifying Homonyms in Jokes
Entirely
Distinct
meanings
1. Time flies like an arrow
Fruit flies like a banana
2. Policeman: Why have you parked your car here?
Motorist: Because the sign says “Fine for Parking”.
3. Customer: Have you got half-inch nails?
Ironmonger: Yes, sir.
Customer: Then could you scratch my back. It’s very itchy

31. Polysemy & Homonymy ?

32. Homonym, Homophone & Homograph
Homophony: Different words _____________ but _____________ , ex. two and too.
Homography: Different words _____________ but _____________, e.g. minute and minute.
Homonyms are words that are ___homophones and homographs.

33. Homonym, Homophone & Homograph
Types of HOMONYMY:
Same SOUNDS
Same SPELLING
Homophone  X
Homograph
Homonym

34. Identifying homophones
Same
Pronunciation
/ Different
Spelling
1. [steər] 
1. Stair, stare
2. [weist] 
2. waste, waist
3. [si:lIη] 
3. sealing, ceiling
4. [kju:] 
4. cue, queue
5. [sent] 
5. sent, cent, scent

35. Identifying Homographs
Same
Spelling
/ Different
Pronunciation
Read /rid/ & /rɛd/
Wind /wɪnd/ & /waɪd/
Live /lɪv/ & /laɪv/
Tear
Invalid
Bow
Dove

36. Polysemy or Homonymy*?
Grass: herbage used for grazing animals; marijuana
Leech: a bloodsucking worm; a hanger-on who seeks advantage
Range: A cooking stove; a series of mountains
Key: An instrument used to apply to a lock; an answer sheet for tests or assignments
Race: the act of running competitively; people belonging to the same genetic grouping

37. Homonymy or Polysemy ?
PASS ?

38. Meronym: Part of a whole
6. Meronym / 7. Holonym
Parts of a Whole
Meronym: Part of a whole
Holonym: The whole to which parts belong

39. 8. Metonym
Metonym: is a _____ ________where a thing is called by the name of something closely associated
to it.
“ Lend me
your ear ”

40. “Washington” for the “United States government”
Examples of METONYMS
"ear" means "attention”
ex: lending an ear
“Washington” for the “United States government”
ex: Washington passed a law
“Sword” for “military power”
ex: not by sword

41. Examples of METONYMS Crown - in place of a royal person
The White House - in place of the President or others who work there
The suits - in place of business people
Dish - for an entire plate of food
Cup - for a mug
The Pentagon - to refer to the staff
The restaurant - to refer to the staff

42. Examples of METONYMS
Ears - for giving attention ("Lend me your ears!" from Mark Antony in Julius Caesar)
Eyes - for sight
The library - for the staff or the books
Pen - for the written word
Sword - for military might
Silver fox - for an attractive older man
Hand - for help

43. Application: Bible Translation
A case study of a polysemous word :
I do not permit a woman to teach or to exercise authority over a man; rather, she is to remain quiet.
1 Timothy 2:12 (English Standard Version)
Context:
I allow no woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to remain in quietness and keep silence [in religious assemblies].
1 Timothy 2:12 (Amplified Bible)
Polysemy and Cooccurance: “Woman” or “Wife” ?
But I suffer not a woman to teach, neither to have lordship on the husband [neither for to have lordship on the man], but to be in silence.
1 Timothy 2:12 (Wycliffe New Testament)
Key word Bible:

44. Ambiguity Review of the text:
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D. Oaks, 1998)

45. Multiple Meanings LEXICAL (or POLYSEMANTIC) AMBIGUITY
E.g. For many purposes they used obsidian or volcanic rock.
SYNTACTIC (or STRUCTURAL) AMBIGUITY
E.g. a fat lady’s man
CLASS (or PART-OF-SPEECH) AMBIGUITY:
E.g. Many hands make light work. (in given example)
SCRIPT AMBIGUITY:
E.g. I am an outdoor lover.
“lover of the Out-of-doors” … or … ?
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb)

46. What Ambiguity? Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

47. What Ambiguity? Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic (or structural) ambiguity?
Class (or part-of-speech) ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

48. What Ambiguity? Polysemy or homonymy?
Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic (or structural) ambiguity?
Class (or part-of-speech) ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

49. What Ambiguity? Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic (or structural) ambiguity?
Class (or part-of-speech) ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

50. Homographs, homophones or homonyms?
What Ambiguity?
Homographs,
homophones or
homonyms?
Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic (or structural) ambiguity?
Class (or part-of-speech) ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

51. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

52. What Ambiguity? Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic (or structural) ambiguity?
Class (or part-of-speech) ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

53. A small business man. What Ambiguity?
Lexical (or polysemantic) ambiguity?
Syntactic (or structural) ambiguity?
Class (or part-of-speech) ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?
A small business man.

54. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

55. Concept, Referent and Form
Preliminary theory to semantics

56. Don’t think of a pink elephant!
The Abstract Side of Language
Don’t think of a pink elephant!

57. Referent: the actual thing
CONCRETE !!!
REFERENT
(the actual thing)

58. (abstract, in our heads)
CONCEPT: the thought in our head SYMBOL: the associated sounds in our head
ABSTRACT !!!
SYMBOL
(word)
[bərd]
[bərd]
Animal
Wings
Beck
Ect.
CONCEPT
(abstract, in our heads)
ABSTRACT !!!
Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)

59. Referent, Concept and SYMBOL
(word)
ABSTRACT !!!
[bərd]
CONCEPT
(abstract, in our heads)
ABSTRACT !!!
REFERENT
(the actual thing)
CONCRETE !!!
Ferdinand de Saussure
Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)

60. Referent, Concept and Symbol
The _______ refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.),
the _______ refers to the object in the world of experience,
and THOUGHT or REFERENCE refers to _______ .
The SYMBOL refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the REFERENT refers to the object in the world of experience, and THOUGHT or REFERENCE refers to concept.
The symbol or a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept” associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
e.g. The dog over there looks friendly.
The word “dog” is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a “dog” is like, but it is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case.

61. Referent, Concept and Symbol
There is not a direct link between the sound of the word dog (Symbol) and the object it refers to.
What is called the signified is not actually what we have been shown but an abstract concept formed in our mind.
Refers to
evokes
Symbol
Stands for
Referent
 no direct relationship
Semantic Triangle
Ogden & Richards

62. Romeo and Juliette (Shakespeare)
'Tis but thy name that is my enemy; Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? it is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name!
What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd, Retain that dear perfection which he owes Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, And for that name which is no part of thee Take all myself

63. Review: The Abstract Side of Things
SYMBOL
CONCEPT
Sounds bərd]
Mental representation of the sound
« acoustic image »
(sound pattern)
A string of phonemes (sounds)
Psychic imprint
We refer to this mental imprint to understand when someone speaks
Common to speakers of that language (therefore conventional)
Concept
(mental representation of reality)
-Psychic
-Mental image of the referent
- Ex: covered in feathers, has a beak, etc.
Ferdinand de Saussure

64. Concepts Across Languages
WIN (English) = GAGNER (French)
Both are intransitive verb = Subject + verb
DEVANCER (French) = “to pass”, “to move ahead” or “to be ahead” (English)
In the French word, there is more emphasis on the fact of “being ahead” than on the idea of passing.
BEAT (English) … not really a French equivalent (in Standard French)
Transitive verb = Subject + verb + object
So what happens when I want to say that I beat someone in French?
JE T’AI GAGNÉ (Litt. Translated: “I won you”)
transitive verb
JE T’AI BEATÉ (Acadian French)

65. A FEW APPROACHES TO MEANING
Connotation
Referents:
Denotation
Extension
Intention:
Semantic Analysis
Syntax:
Word Combination

66. What does it mean when you say you know the meaning of a word?
What is “word meaning”?
What does it mean when you say you know the meaning of a word?
What does it mean when you say you know a word, such as “bird” “blue”, or “happy” ?
How do we _______ of a word meaning?

67. Approaches to Word Meaning
Here are a few ways to look at meaning:
Connotation
Referents:
Denotation
Extension
Intention:
Semantic Analysis
Syntax:
Word Combination

68. « Set of associations that a word’s use can _______ »
1. Connotation
« Set of associations that a word’s use can _______  »
Ex: winter
Let’s do some word mapping around the word winter !
This is not enough to define the meaning …

69. 2. Referents: Denotation
According to _______ _______ …
To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual entities to which it refers
An animal
that can bark
Prime Minister
of Canada
dog
Stephen
Harper

70. 2. Referents: Denotation
To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual entities to which it refers
But what about imaginary
things that have
no referents !!!

71. Referents: Denotation
And what about words/expressions that have ___referents for one thing, for the same thing
e.g. Stephen Harper 
the Prime Minister of Canada ‡
the leader of Conservative Party

72. 3. Referents: Extension
A word’s extension corresponds to the __________ that it _______ in the world (_______ )
DOG = /dawg/

73. Extension in Child Speech
Overextension is when a child uses a word too broadly. Like if they called
ALL males 'daddy'
All animals 'dog'
overextension
DOG = /dawg/

74. Extension in Child Speech
Underextension is the opposite. For example, a child may only call black labs 'dog' but no other dogs.
Ex: Calling their rattle a rattle,
but calling other ones 'toys'.
underextension
DOG = /dawg/

75. Extension in Child Speech
Underextension
Ex: Calling soft ball “balls”, but not when they are hard as in a pool ball.
underextension
BALL = /bal/

76. Extension often in Adults
Underextension :
Ex: Calling oranges and apples fruit, but not including tomatoes.
underextension
FRUIT = /frut/

77. KIDS SAY THE DARNDEST THINGS !!!
My cousin's daughter looked at my feet the other day and saw the state of my torn shoes.
She looked over to her mother and said: "Mommy, look. She has broken feet!“
Classic example
of over-extension
of “feet” :)

78. Overextension
overextension
FEET = /fit/

79. Referents: Denotation vs.Extension
A word’s extension corresponds to the set of entities that it picks out in the world (referents).
Denotation To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual entities to which it refers
DOG = /dawg/
DOG = /dawg/

80. 4. Intention: Semantic Analysis
Used to
represents
the word’s
INTENTION
Also called:
Componential Analysis Or
Semantic Decomposition

81. 4. Intention
A word’s intension corresponds to its ____________ or the _______ that is _______ .
* The distinction stipulates the relation between referents and meanings
In your
head

82. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
Contemporary Linguistics Analysis: p. 196
Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
Semantic properties: The _________ of meaning of a word.
Distinctive feature Analysis: to illustrate semantic properties linguist’s use a notational system for expressing the ______ or _______ of semantic properties by “+” and “-”.
Example of Distinctive feature Analysis analysis:
“baby” is [+ young], [+ human]

83. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
SOW
Definition:
a fully grown female pig
Semantic Analysis:
[+ animal], [+ pig], [- male]
[+ adult]
or [+ female]

84. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
PIG
HOG
SOW
PIGLET
[PIG] (species) +
[ADULT] -
[MALE]
+/-
[FEMALE]

85. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
1. (a) widow, mother, sister, aunt, maid
(b) widower, father, brother, uncle, valet
The (a) and (b) words are
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[+ ______]
[+ ______]
[+ ______]
2. (a) bachelor, paperboy, pope, chief
(b) bull, rooster, drake, ram
The (a) and (b) words are
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[+ _______]
[+ _______]
[+ _______]

86. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
3. (a) table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship
(b) milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[+ _______]
[ ]
4. (a) pine, elm, sycamore
(b) dandelion, aster, daisy
The (a) and (b) words are
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

87. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
CAR
Definition:
A vehicle moving on wheels
Semantic Analysis:
[+ vehicle], [+ motorized], [+ 4 wheels] …
How would we know that it is not a truck?

88. Intention: Semantic Analysis (or Distinctive feature Analysis )
BUTTERFLY
Definition:
any of numerous slender-bodied diurnal lepidopteran insects including one superfamily (Papilionoidea) with broad often brightly colored wings and usually another superfamily comprising the skippers
Semantic Analysis:
[ ], [ ], [ ] …

89. 5. Syntax Subcategorization of Verbs
2 COMPLEMENTS: NO COMPLEMENT:
Fax Murmur
Radio Mumble
Wire Mutter
Phone Shriek
Emphasis on: Emphasis on:
- ____________ - ____________
So there’s a link between _______ and _______ !!!

90. The Word’s Context / Word Combinations
The importance of Word combination:
An example:
What is wrong with this sentence:
The colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

91. The Word’s Context / Word Combinations
There are many reasons why two words cannot be combined:
Meaning
Inherent meaning (ex: colorless green*)
Connotation (ex: sleep furiously*)
Semantic limits of words (ex: watched the intelligence*; or green ideas*)
Syntax
Complements (ex: he closed the telephone*)
Subject (ex: the door danced*)

92. 6. Syntax & Semantics: Actantial Approach
In defining a verb we should also describe it’s _______ and _______ :
A1 tosses A2 to A3:
A1 = [+ human]
A2 = [+ concrete], [+ movable], [+ small]
A3 = [± human] or [+ living/moving], [+ with hands/arms]…
We can also use this approach with other lexical categories like adjectives, nouns, adverbs, etc.
* Again, this is a combination of _______ and _______ !
Jacqueline Picoche

93. A FEW APPROACHES TO MEANING
Therefore:
The colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
“IDEAS” cannot have a color since it is [+ abstract]
“FURIOUSLY” has to modify a verbs where one is conscious, amongst other things.
“SLEEP” has a “restful” connotation. “FURIOUSLY” doesn’t.
Something cannot be “colorless” and “green” at the same time. There is semantic contradiction here.

94. Meaning of Words Through Time
The meaning of words can evolve into more polysemantic meanings

95. Neologism (or Coinage)

96. Neologism (or Coinage)
Using derivation:
Coffeefy …

97. Evolution of Meaning
Language Changes a lot, not just in adding new words here and there, but also as the meaning of these words change with time.
« Cool » used to mean « not warm/cold ». Then the meaning changed.
Now, « cool », is not really that « cool » anymore !

98. Evolution of Meaning = Polysemy
BARRÉ (Acadian French):
Blocked door (with actual bar)
Blocked door (locked)
Blocked river
Blocked road
This is how you get _______ 

99. Evolution of Meaning 

100. Meaning and dictionaries
Lexicology
Meaning and dictionaries

101. Analogy Definition of the French words “PLUME”: A feather
A feather used for writing (“plume-fontaine”)
A ball point pen (ou “stylo”)
Definitions drawn out of a metaphor (or analogy).
From something concrete to something concrete.
Dictionary.com
Choi-Jonin & Delhay, 1998

102. Analogy, Figurative Sense & Metonymy
Definition of the words “SWORD” :
a weapon (…).
this weapon as the symbol of military power, punitive justice. authority, etc.
Ex: The pen is mightier than the sword.
war, combat, slaughter, or violence.
The Bible.
What meanings are drawn out of a certain metaphor?
Analogy – from concrete to concrete:
Figurative – from concrete to abstract:
Metonymy: pen and sword
Metonymy is, broadly defined, a trope in which one entity is used to stand for another associated entity.
Examples (English)   The pen is mightier than the sword.
Pen and sword represent publishing and military force, respectively.
The following examples illustrate the controller-for-controlled metonymy:
Nixon bombed Hanoi.
Nixon stands for the armed forces that Nixon controlled.
A Mercedes rear-ended me.
The word me stands for the car that the speaker was driving.
Dictionary.com
Choi-Jonin & Delhay, 1998