1. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. CELLULAR METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS Chapter 4

2. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction to Cellular Metabolism Metabolism: total cellular chemical changes –Anabolism: process of building up –Catabolism: process of breaking down Calorie: measure of energy contained in food ATP: energy source available to the cell

3. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. CELLULAR METABOLISM OR BIOCHEMICAL RESPIRATION

4. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Glycolysis Breakdown of glucose Anaerobic or aerobic process Final outcome –2 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP molecules (anaerobic), 8 ATP molecules (aerobic)

5. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle Pyruvic Acid > Acetic Acid > Acetyl-CoA Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle in mitochondria Final outcome –6 CO 2, 8 NADH 2, 2 FADH 2, 2 ATP (GTP)

6. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Electron Transport (Transfer) System Series of reduction/oxidation reactions Requires O 2 Electron carriers Number of ATP molecules dependent on electron carrier Water is a waste product

7. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Summary of ATP Production During glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport Glycolysis: 8 ATP (aerobic) Krebs cycle and electron transport –28 ATP + 2 GTP or –30 ATP 1 glucose molecule yields 38 ATP

8. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

9. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Fermentation Yeast breaks down glucose anaerobically Pyruvic acid broken down by decarboxylase –Forms carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde Final products: 2 ATP, CO 2, ethyl alcohol

10. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles Pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid –Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue in muscles –When oxygen supplied, lactic acid turns back into pyruvic acid 2 ATP produced per glucose molecule

11. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PRODUCTION OF ATP FROM GENERAL FOOD COMPOUNDS

12. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.) Carbohydrates fit into cellular furnace at same level as glucose –Can be stored in liver or as fat Fats digested into fatty acids and glycerol –Glycerol enters at PGA stage of glycolysis –Fatty acids enter Krebs citric acid cycle

13. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.) Proteins digested into amino acids –Enter into Krebs cycle at different stages Dependent on chemical structure

14. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

15. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction to Cellular Reproduction (cont’d.) Process of cell duplication Mitosis: duplication of genetic material Cytokinesis: duplication of organelles Meiosis: reduction division only in gonads

16. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. THE STRUCTURE OF THE DNA MOLECULE

17. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The History of the Discovery of DNA Friedrich Miescher, 1869: first discovery P.A. Levine, 1920s: composition Rosalind Franklin: helical structure Watson and Crick: three-dimensional structure

18. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule Double helical chain of nucleotides –Phosphate group –Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose) –Nitrogen-containing base Pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine) Purines (adenine and guanine) –Pyrimidines pair with purines –Chains held together by hydrogen bonds

19. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule (cont’d.) Gene: sequence of base pairs that codes for polypeptide or protein Human Genome Project –3 billion base pairs that code for 30,000 genes Duplication of DNA molecule –Helicase separates at hydrogen bonds –DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides

20. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. THE CELL CYCLE

21. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction All reproduction begins at cellular level Interphase –Previously called resting stage Mitosis Cytokinesis

22. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Interphase Time between divisions –G 1 : Primary growth phase –S: DNA duplication –G 2 : Centrioles complete duplication, mitochondria replicate, chromosomes condense and coil

23. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis Prophase –Chromosomes become visible as chromatids joined by centromere –Two kinetochores at the centromere –Centrioles move to opposite poles –Nuclear membrane breaks down –Microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle

24. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis (cont’d.) Metaphase –Chromatids align at equator of cell –Centromere divides

25. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis (cont’d.) Anaphase –Divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole –Cytokinesis begins

26. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis (cont’d.) Telophase –Chromosomes uncoil and decondense –Spindle apparatus breaks down –New nuclear membrane forms –Cytokinesis nearly complete

27. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Animation – Mitosis Stop and watch a 3-D presentation of mitosis. Click Here to Play Mitosis Animation

28. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Cytokinesis Animal cells –Cleavage furrow forms –Cell is pinched into daughter cells Plant cells –Cell plate forms at equator –Cell plate becomes new cell wall

29. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. MEIOSIS: A REDUCTION DIVISION

30. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction Occurs only in the gonads Reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid Two divisions resulting in four cells

31. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Stages of Meiosis Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair and cross over Metaphase I: chromosomes align along equator Anaphase I: centromeres pulled to poles –One member to each pole Telophase I: one of each pair is at each pole

32. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Stages of Meiosis (cont’d.) Prophase II: spindle forms; centrioles move to poles Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at equator Anaphase II: centromeres divide Telophase II: chromatids at each pole; new nuclear membrane forms

33. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Animation – Meiosis Now that you have learned about the stages of meiosis, watch the meiosis animation for a visual of this process. Click Here to Play Meiosis Animation

34. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. GAMETOGENESIS: THE FORMATION OF THE SEX CELLS

35. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells (cont’d.) Spermatogenesis –Four cells produced –Develop into sperm Oogenesis –Four cells produced –Only one becomes functional egg

36. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Animation – Cancer Metastasizing Refer to the Common Disease, Disorder or Condition box on Cancer in your textbook and read about the growth of cancer cells. Now watch the 3-D Cancer Metastasizing animation. Click Here to Play Cancer Metastasizing Animation

37. © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Summary Discussed how glucose is converted into ATP in the presence of oxygen Discussed how glucose is converted into ATP in the absence of oxygen Described how fats and proteins are converted into ATP Discussed the cell cycle