1. 1 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Chapter 2Research Methods by Neil Guppy

2. 2 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Social research involves the systematic study of the social world. Good social research aims to better the human condition and enlarge the scope of human freedom by requiring that social phenomena be described, explained, understood, and acted upon. SOCIAL RESEARCH

3. 3 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE Common sense is knowledge gained from personal experience. Religious faith/mysticism is knowledge based on spiritual teachings. Expertise is specialized knowledge from experts.

4. 4 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Scientific knowledge is based on direct, systematic, reproducible observation. It is the only type of knowledge that rests on the principles of public scrutiny of methods and results, scepticism, and criticism. SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE I

5. 5 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Scientific claims are falsifiable propositions. Although hunches, creativity, and imagination are important in formulating scientific ideas, the rules of scientific method require objectivity, or minimizing personal bias. Social scientists differ from natural scientists by studying people’s meaningful action; social scientists’ subjects can think and act. SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE II

6. 6 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. A fundamental premise underlying social research is that correlation does not prove causation. Correlation can be spurious – that is, factors other than the apparent cause of a phenomenon may be responsible for it. An explanation is necessary to show how or why a cause has a certain effect. Multiple causes are involved in almost every social- scientific explanation. METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH I: EXPLANATION

7. 7 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Explanations must address the meaningfulness of human activity. This is achieved through understanding a relationship so as to clarify it. “Taking the role of the other” is a basic social process by which other points of view can be appreciated, understood, or reflected upon. Together, understanding and explanation contribute to knowledge and social change. METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH II: UNDERSTANDING

8. 8 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. VARIABLES I Variable Term Definition An empirical object or phenomenon that can assume a number of different values. Example Individual annual income

9. 9 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. VARIABLES II Dependent variable Term Definition A factor whose value is assumed to be caused or brought about by the operation of an independent variable. Example Annual income is a dependent variable since it is influenced by number of hours worked per year.

10. 10 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. VARIABLES III Independent variable Term Definition A factor that is assumed to be responsible for causing or bringing about the value of some other factor. Example The number of hours a person works in a year is an independent variable that influences the person’s annual income.

11. 11 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION

12. 12 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Sociologists have developed a variety of techniques to gather evidence. Three of the most important are: experiments; survey research; and observation studies. TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

13. 13 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Experiments allow researchers to isolate presumed causes more precisely than any other method. Using randomization, people in an experiment are assigned to experimental and control groups based on chance. This ensures few differences between the two groups. The hypothesis is an unverified, testable claim that is tested by assessing the relationship between variables. EXPERIMENTS I

14. 14 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Limitations of sociological experiments: Many major social processes are not amenable to laboratory testing. Ethical and practical problems limit the use of experiments. When people know they are being studied they can become self-conscious and change their behaviour accordingly (the Hawthorne effect). EXPERIMENTS II

15. 15 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Field experiments are conducted in a natural setting and therefore tend to reduce problems of artificiality. The degree to which the findings of experimental research remain valid outside the laboratory is known as their external validity. EXPERIMENTS III

16. 16 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. SURVEY RESEARCH I The survey is the primary method of collecting social science evidence. It allows the systematic comparison of answers to questions from a large sample, a representative part of the population. Researchers can then generalize results to the larger population from which the sample was drawn.

17. 17 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Survey questions are posed through self- administered questionnaires or through personal interviews. When conducting surveys, it is important not to assume that people: understand what you are asking; know the answer to questions; will admit the answer to themselves; and will give valid answers. SURVEY RESEARCH II

18. 18 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. When using the observation method, sociologists sometimes act as outside observers and sometimes as participant observers to see firsthand how people act. It is often difficult to gain access to actions and events, particularly if they are private. Observation studies are especially useful for understanding the meaning that actions have for the people being investigated. OBSERVATION STUDIES I

19. 19 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Problems with observation studies include: Presence: the chance that subjects may change their behaviour due to the presence of the observer. Ethnocentrism: the possible imposition of the researcher’s values on the subject matter of the study. Bias of focus: the possibility that responses and findings are generated only as a result of the questions being asked. OBSERVATION STUDIES II

20. 20 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. OTHER RESEARCH METHODS Sociologists often use historical evidence to assess theories of social change. Sociologists also use official statistics, collected by governments in censuses, labour force surveys, police reports, etc., to gain valuable information. These data, however, are not “objective facts” and should be interpreted with caution.

21. 21 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. ANALYZING NUMERICAL DATA: CONTINGENCY TABLES I Numerical data can be analyzed using contingency tables (or cross-tabulations), which simultaneously classify an individual’s scores on two or more variables. To improve understanding of patterns in data, raw data are converted into percentages. With percentages, one can see how the category an individual occupies in the dependent variable is affected by the category occupied in the independent variable.

22. 22 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. The strength of association between two variables in a contingency table can be measured by the percentage difference between columns. By introducing a control variable in a two-variable table, one can see how (if at all) the third variable affects the percentage difference originally observed. This clarifies the reasons for the original association in the two-variable table. ANALYZING NUMERICAL DATA: CONTINGENCY TABLES II

23. 23 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND EARNED INCOME Insert Table 2.1, p. 48

24. 24 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION, EARNED INCOME, AND GENDER

25. 25 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. ANALYZING NUMERICAL DATA: REGRESSION ANALYSIS I When analyzing data with multiple variables, contingency tables often become complicated. Regression analysis is a good alternative in such cases. Data can be simultaneously cross-classified in a scatterplot, with the independent variable along the x-axis and the dependent variable along the y-axis.

26. 26 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. A scatterplot can be summarized statistically using regression tech- niques. A straight line is drawn so the distance from each point to the line is minimized. The further the points are from the line, the weaker the association between the two variables. ANALYZING NUMERICAL DATA: REGRESSION ANALYSIS II

27. 27 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. SUPPLEMENTARY SLIDES

28. 28 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. Values Theories Previous Research Methods HOW RESEARCH FILTERS PERCEPTION “Reality”

29. 29 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. THE RESEARCH CYCLE 1. formulate question 2.review existing literature 4. collect data 5. analyze data3. select method 6. report results

30. 30 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. CORRELATION r =.85 r = -.92 r = 0 Dependent variable Dependent variable Dependent variable Independent Variable Independent Variable Independent Variable 1. Positive Correlation 2. Negative Correlation 3. No Correlation

31. 31 Copyright © 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. THE MARGIN OF ERROR IN A SAMPLE Support for Candidate A Support for Candidate B 40% 48% 60% 40% 50% 60% In a sample of 1,500 people, 48% of the respondents support candidate A and 50% support candidate B. However, because the 2.5% margins of error overlap, we can’t be sure if support for candidates A and B differs in the population. To conclude that support for the two candidates differs in the population, the margins of error must not overlap. X X 2.5% margin of error