1. The Scientific Method

2. What is the Scientific Method
A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem
Requires precise preparation in developing useful research.

3. Five Basic Steps Defining the problem Reviewing the literature
Formulating the hypothesis
Selecting the research design then collecting and analyzing the data
Developing the conclusion

4. Example for Scientific Method: access to postsecondary education
Some people make great sacrifices and work hard to get a postsecondary education.
Some parents borrow money for their children’s tuition.
Some students work part-time while attending evening or weekend classes.
But are these students and parents typical?
Or do people whose parents have higher incomes have higher rates of university attendance?
Taking functionalist approach (but may change to other perspectives)

5. 1- Defining the problem
State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate
Interested in knowing how parents’ income relates their children’s postsecondary education
Must develop an operational definition of each concept being studied
Operational definition = an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept
Two operational definitions: education and income (whether parents with higher incomes have children who are more likely to attend a postsecondary institution.
Initially take the functionalist perspective and argue that opportunities for postsecondary education are related to a parents’ income.

6. 2- Reviewing the Literature
Literature = the relevant scholarly studies and information
Review allows researchers to define the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes
Examine the income of the parents of students in university

7. 3-Formulating the Hypothesis
After reviewing earlier research and drawing on the contributions of sociological theorists, the researchers may then formulate the hypothesis.
Hypothesis = speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables.
Variables = measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions (ie. Income, religion, occupation, and gender)

8. Formulating a Hypothesis continued…
Researchers who formulate a hypothesis generally must suggest how one aspect of human behaviour influences or affects another.
The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another is called the independent variable.
The second variable is termed the dependent variable because its action “depends” on the influence of the independent variable.
Hypothesis = The higher their parents’ income, the more likely it is that children go to university or college. The independent variable to be measured is parents’ income levels. The variable thought to depend on it – attendance at a postsecondary institution – must also be measured.

9. Formulating Hypothesis continued…
Indentifying independent and dependent variables is a critical step in clarifying cause-and-effect relationships in society.
Causal logic involves the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other.

10. Correlation
A correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable.
Correlations are indications that causality may be present; they do not necessarily indicate causation.
Sociologists seek to identify the causal link between variables; this causal link is generally described by researchers in their hypotheses.

11. 4- Collecting and Analyzing Data
How do you test a hypothesis to determine whether it is supported or refuted?
You need to collect information, using one of the research designs which guides the researcher in collecting and analyzing data.

12. Selecting the Sample
Sample = selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population
Social scientists frequently use the random sample.
Random sample = every member of an entire population begin studied has the same chance of being selected.
Advantage = do not need to question everyone in a population

13. Ensuring Validity and Reliability
The scientific method requires that research results be both valid and reliable.
Validity = the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study
Reliability = the extent to which a measure produces consistent results
Problems arise when people to do not disclose accurate info

14. 5-Developing the Conclusion
Scientific studies, including those conducted by sociologists, do not aim to answer all questions that can be raised about a particular subject.
Therefore, the conclusion of a research study represents both an end and a beginning.
It terminates a specific phase of the investigation, but it should also generate ideas for future study.

15. Supporting the Hypotheses
In some studies, the research will support the hypothesis.
Found data to support hypothesis: People whose parents have higher incomes have higher rates of postsecondary attendance.
Not perfect: some people from families of lower incomes do attend university
Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis.
Many times the hypothesis is refuted, and researchers must reformulate their conclusions.
Unexpected results may also lead sociologists to reexamine their methodology and make changes to their research design.