1. Paradigmatic issues Positivist and critical/interpretive research Qualitative and quantitative research Induction and deduction Experimental and non-experimental research Paradigm: a framework for looking at and understanding the world

2. Research Paradigms Provide guidelines and principles concerning the way research is conducted In the social sciences, rival, and sometimes complimentary paradigms coexist Reflected in competing or alternative approaches The two dominant paradigms are the positivist and interpretive approaches

3. Positivist and critical/interpretive research Positivist – Universal truths and laws – Researcher seeks objectivity/detachment – World to be researched is 'external' – Deductive, quantitative methods common - similar to natural science model Critical/interpretive – Multiples realities – Researcher accepts subjectivity – Researcher engages with research subject – Inductive, qualitative methods common

4. Qualitative and quantitative research Quantitative – Involves numerical data – Often involves large numbers of cases – Seeks to generalise to whole population – Use of questionnaires, observations, secondary sources (e.g. sales date)

5. Qualitative and quantitative research Qualitative – Generally does not involve numerical data – Generally involves small numbers of cases – Findings typically not generalisable – Informal, unstructured in-depth interviews, participant observation (e.g. diaries)

6. Inference – Induction & Deduction Induction – “The process of drawing a conclusion in an empirical study by observing and generalising from a set of data.” Deduction – “The process of drawing conclusions from other propositions or from data on the basis of logical reasoning.”

7. Induction and deduction Induction begins at A and moves to B then to point C Deduction begins at C and moves to A then B

8. Experimental and non-experimental research Experimental – Research conducted in a controlled environment (eg. laboratory) – Researcher has control over a limited number of variables Non-experimental – Research conducted in a 'real world' environment – Researcher has no control over many of the variables involved – Focus on relationships rather than causality

9. Data Issues Primary and secondary data Self-reported and observed data

10. Primary and secondary data Primary – Data collected for the purposes of the research in hand – Researcher is primary user Secondary – Data already collected by other researchers for other projects or for non-research (eg. administrative) purposes – Researcher is secondary user.

11. Self-reported and observed data Self-reported data – Research based on information provided by subjects - eg. in an interview – Includes self-reports of past, recent and intended behaviour (eg. Surveys, interviews) Issue – Dependent on people responding honestly (and being able to do so)

12. Self-reported and observed data Observed data – Research is based on observation of subjects' behaviour (eg. use of record sheets, financial transaction) Issue – Dependent on being able to observe area of interest

13. Range of research approaches Scholarship – reading and reflecting 'Just thinking‘ Using the existing literature – see Chapter 4 Using secondary data – see Chapters 5 & 12 Observation – see Chapter 6 Qualitative methods – see Chapters 7 & 15 Questionnaire-based surveys – see Chapters 8 & 13 The case study method – see Chapter 9 Experimental methods – see Chapter 10 Cross-cutting/subsidiary techniques – see below

14. Cross-cutting/subsidiary techniques Textual analysis – analysis of print and audio-visual materials Longitudinal studies – replication of surveys etc. with same subjects over time Panel surveys – a recruited sample responds to several surveys Projective techniques – ‘what if’ questions Use of scales – Likert-type scales re-used by a number of researchers Meta-analysis – analysis of many studies on a single topic and with similar format conclusions (eg. correlation) Action research – research committed to changing the world Historical research – typically using documentary resources Media-sponsored surveys – surveys responded to by readers/ viewers Delphi technique – consolidation of views of experts

15. Triangulation Use of more than one method to focus on the same problem/issue/question – Use of both qualitative and quantitative methods at the same time - eg. Survey methods and Case study – Results of one method are essential for planning the next method - eg. Exploratory Pilot study precedes Experimental design The methods used are often complementary (e.g. the weaknesses in one are offset by the strengths in the other)

16. Choosing a method Considerations in choosing a method – The research question or hypothesis – Previous research – Data availability/access – Resources – Time – Validity, reliability and generalisability – Ethics – Uses/users of the findings