1. JOHN LOCKE 1632-1704 JOHN LOCKE 1632-1704 An English philosopher, physician & student of politics He is widely “regarded” as the founder of liberal democratic thought. In Locke’s though, all people possessed Certain Natural Rights & not rights conferred by anyone or government He followed Thomas Hobbes’s idea of the “State of Nature.” Lockes’s State of Nature was considered a “State of War” that needed to be removed for peace, tranquility He believed that human beings were capable of respective the rights of others in the state of nature

2. LOCKE on Rights There is moral Imperative in the state of nature because “God had given the Earth to the children of Men, given it to Mankind in common” He made these arguments from two assumptions: “i.) “every individual has a right to … [self-] Preservation,” and ii.) “every Man has a Property in his own person[which] … no Body has any Right to but himself.” He deduced an “individual’s natural right to property.”

3. LOCKE on Natural Law Restrictions He believed that “an individual must leave enough property for others to use (after all, the earth was given, by God, to all people in common)”; & that “an individual must not allow anything to spoil (“God’s grant was to make use of the earth, not to allow it to rot.”)” Locke established Property rights to be both “Inclusive” (common to all) & “Exclusive” (privately owned) He said that man should accumulate property as much as he could make use of, because “originally, a person could accumulate only as much property as

4. JOHN LOCKE on property He could personally use without spoilage & with sufficient property remaining for others.” This Natural Rights Limitation on Accumulation has been circumvented by people to mean “Unlimited property accumulation” as a God’s plan or design (p. 34) So humanity decided to rule out original situation for their selfish ends On Labor: Locke said that God commanded people to Labor on Earth; therefore, Labor is critical to human survival & to human soul –Locke meant that God’s creature should be “industrious” (hardworking)

5. JOHN LOCKE on property And also Rational; there is a hidden premise that, industriousness would create class distinction; therefore, it is of “inegalitarian implications” This served as an emerging difference in class within Capitalism & its unrelenting goal of inherent capital accumulation Locke on Tolerance: P. 37 In Locke’s “Letter Concerning Tolerance” 1689, he argued that religion is the subject of beliefs, rather than of science.” That humanity “could never be absolutely certain of the “truthfulness” of any particular interpretation of Christianity

6. Locke on Tolerance & Faith So, government he contends should not interfere in people’s beliefs He called for religious tolerance, not only by government, but also by everyone; so He established (1) religious tolerance & (2) separation of religion from public & private (separation of church & state) as essential Liberal Value System that people must pursue This idea has led to the U.S. & other nations being secularized.

7. JOHN LOCKE on Functions of Government Locke believed that government ought to be strictly limited (Limited government) He believed that government should perform essential & vital function, which is: to serve the people, even though he also believed that People would serve themselves best when they are left alone; & that Other things are done better by society’s representatives He does not like government interference in the lives of the people, because, people could act efficiently and fairly by themselves without government

8. JOHN LOCKE on Functions of Government (2) Locke agreed that there were times when governmental activities would be necessary, just to protect the rights of the people; otherwise, Government should let people pursue their own best interests When people come in conflict over the extent of their rights & liberties, then government is required to be an impartial arbiter in the dispute; & it should step aside after as son as the dispute is settled Unlike Thomas Hobbes who wanted people to surrender most of their natural rights to government in the hope that of achieving order, Locke thought these Rights were “inalienable.”

9. JOHN LOCKE on Functions of Government ( The only right Locke accepts could be surrendered was the right to decide to what extent or how extensive their individual liberties would be; even here, the only time Locke wants government to step in is when there is conflict alone

10. JOHN LOCKE on Structure of Government Locke was particular about the structure & form of government. It must be limited since for him, the individual is good; rational and capable to do things fairly right and to know what was good for them He advocated for the “Will of the majority.” (Majority Rule) as a formula for deciding correct policy Individual were also expected to accept the decision of the majority even if they disagreed with it. He wanted an elected parliament chosen by the people who owned property.

11. JOHN LOCKE on Structure of Government He maintained that the people should be sovereign. Parliamentarians he said, must vote according to the wishes of their constituents; & That the government & the governed should remain close The separation of power between the Executive & Legislature was equally sought for by Locke & that The Legislature directly elected by the sovereign people should take precedence over the Executive branch Therefore, the legislature should decide the policy of government, while the Executive should dutifully carry out the policies (mandates) of the parliament.

12. JOHN LOCKE on Property owning Citizens He wants only property owning citizens to vote, & the people must obey the government as long as it does not abuse the rights of the citizens He contended that since the citizens are sovereign, they have the right to rebel against an unjust government, since the purpose of government is to serve the people & protect their liberties & rights -Hobbes opposed popular rebellion After a rebellion, Locke contended, the people has a right to create one that serves them right But, Hobbes opposed popular rebellion against the King, whom he considered sovereign –the highest law in the land

13. John Locke on Democracy During Locke’s time, Britain was controlled by Aristocrats, but Locke was in favor of “middle-class” revolution. Notwithstanding, merchants, wealthy, middle class, bankers, manufacturers and professionals emerged on the eve of the Industrial Revolution to demand for their fair share of political power in the society Locke said that rights were inalienable, that is to say: “people are equally possessed of natural rights, yet he allowed only the middle class to control parliament through the “House of Commons”, the aristocrats, the House of Lords & the Throne –thus,

14. Locke on Democracy Locke did not advocate for “the masses of ordinary people,” the poor, since he did not recognize their rights to vote or elect members of Parliament, which means that he denied them Real Political Power. Still his idea helped in the development of Liberal Democracy, even though he chose to “Disenfranchise” the POOR Thus,democracy had to wait for a More Egalitarian Epoch –an era of mass production of goods, created by necessary economic & social condition Political Power for all came from French Radicalism in the name of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

15. Hobbes & Locke Reconsidered In both Hobbes & Locke’s ideas, the INDIVIDUAL stands out as a noticeable feature of human existence “People individuals are seen differently by the fascist who believed that individuals are only members of a group or race & their interaction with only the race defines their very existence “Marxist, natural humans are gregarious members of a community governed by shared values; and that humanity’s historic difference is economics “Islam, human being should wholly & totally submit to the will of Allah & then the ideal Islamic community could be created” p. 38

16. Hobbes & Locke Reconsidered But the British liberalism of Locke, the individual is “supreme.” And, “people possess certain rights –Natural Rights –that are granted them by” virtue of their nature or humanity. & thus, “Despite physical& mental ability, all human beings were similarly endowed with these natural rights, leading to a position of relative equality. Equality derived from “common parenthood in God.” On “Self-Interest Motivation”: p. 39 People are largely motivated by “selfish desires, often to acquire things

17. On “Self-Interest Motivation”: p. 39 People are purely and mainly interested in satisfying their human desires, in “fulfilling the needs that their self-interests dictate” It has developed into passionate basis of human motivation; so Human rationality (morality) is today basically conceived as very narrow-minded, as instruments or means (acquisition of objects) to end (self-interest) But to “Individualist Liberals” they were concerned with the Notion of Private Property as part of the notion of freedom –freedom to possess or own, e.g. British Liberalism as a whole were concerned with humans essentially in “Economic Terms.”

18. Self-Motivation Adam Smith amongst the Individualist Liberals, invented “The Labor Theory of Value.” So, liberalism started to view property as “the natural expression of human potentials & an indication of personal creativity.” The above means that it is “natural” & appropriate and part of “natural right” for humanity

19. Liberalism becomes liberal democracy p. 40 Liberalism arrived at the same time as did Capitalism (p. 40) They provided justification & explanation for new Economic System, which “Rewarded” the individuals who use their reason and industry in the pursuit of “Personal Gain.” When individuals pursue personal gain, and succeed, everyone in the society benefits from it So, “Private Vice” became “Public Virtue.” As the noted Satirist Mandeville put it: “Thus, every part was full of vice, yet the whole mass a paradise.”

20. “Liberalism Becomes Liberal Democracy” Yet, it became clear that “not all members of civil society had equal rights; “Locke argued for a majority rule, but only for the fully rational,” In 1818, Jeremy Bentham proposed that the Franchise be extended to all males of matured age, & sound mind – ”who shall be residents as either ‘householders or inmates within the district or place (ward/constituency) in which they are called to vote; James Mill, the father of John Stuart Mill –made similar argument for universal male suffrage.

21. John Stuart Mill J. S. Mills in his 1820 “An Essay on Government” felt that, human beings needed Vote (franchise) to protect themselves in a world reminiscent of Hobbes’s “State of Nature” that is chaotic. He felt that “one person, one vote” was the only logical order that keeps invading person at bay; Unfortunately, J.S. Mills was willing to exclude many in society, e.g. women from voting; but Mills presented the most basic case for democracy,” the bedrock of Western Democracy Jeremy Bentham & James Mills were part of a “movement” in the 19 th century British liberal thinking

22. Utilitarianism: (Bentham, 1748-1832) This liberal thought was called “Utilitarianism.” Bentham in his :”Introduction to the Principles of Morals & Legislation” placed human beings under the governance of two “sovereign” masters: “Pain & Pleasure.” These are the basis of utilitarianism That means that “human happiness would be achieved when pain was minimized & pleasure maximized That the value of Utility would be measured by the amount of pleasure or pain it brings to the individual That the well being of a society comes when any policy brings “the greatest happiness to the greatest number.” Wants government to take positive steps to maximize the happiness of the society & promote happiness of society

23. Utilitarianism: J. S. Mill (1806-1873) Student of liberalism of Bentham; though, he went beyond Bentham He was an activist, like Bentham –he spent 3-years in the British House of Commons He was interested in many areas of thought: logic, morals & economics. His important work “On Liberty,” (1859) was about treatment of individual freedom in the English liberalism because John Stuart Mill wanted to: Extended franchise to non-property males (non-property) holding majority; So, Mills was bothered with “tyranny majority.” In Britain, Parliamentary System presented ‘structural barriers’ to prevent tyrannical actions on the part of majorities –p. 42

24. Conservatism –p. 42 This is a political tradition generally called “Conservatism.” The central ideas are comparable to liberalism, particularly, the conservatism of Edmund Burke, which involved: The protection of “individual rights” from “potentially,” “tyranny of the majority. Conservatism originated and “gained its official usage in England in the 1830s” and according to sociologist Karl Mannheim, there sees conservatism as that of: traditionalism: THE TENDENCY OF CLINGING TO “OLD WAYS” (Status quo) –Human resistance to change, e.g. the resistance of Enlightenment in Europe Unconscious character trait It is a political innovation that still refers to the old ways in Private Life Style (it becomes “self-conscious.”)

25. Edmund Burke (1729-1797) From Ireland, was the founder of conservative philosophy Although he was a traditionalist in terms of his conservative ideology, he did not always object to change; he however, believe that “change” should be gradual, well thought out & consistent with the prevailing social environment He passionately objected to the French Revolution and that he argued in his classic work: “Reflections on the Revolution in France,” (1790) He argued that the French revolution abruptly replaced Monarchy with a Republic. Human history could not be changed that way, because “human reason” is not competent to improve sociopolitical systems that are the products of years of accumulation of wisdom

26. Edmund Burke (1729-1797) He believed that any existing institution had Value because it is a product of wisdom of successive generation He did not share “liberalism optimism” in rational individuals –He writes that: “For man, is a most unwise, a most wise, being.” “The individual is foolish.” (p. 43) Tradition is appropriate for achieving justice By reason alone, he contended, “history should not be change.” p. 44 Burke on Government: His idea was that of “Mixed & Balanced Constitutional Government.” –A Republic

27. Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Mixed & balanced government would comprise of (1) monarchy (One) (2) the “Natural” aristocracy (few) (3) the people (many comprising of 400,000 “upper class” property holders in Scotland & England) –p. 45 Natural Aristocracy” are those who by birth, custom, habit, know how to rule wisely on behalf of all. Power resides in these people He described British Parliamentarian system as a “good form of government.” Parliament watches out for the good for society Representatives owe their duties & judgment to the constituencies

28. James Madison (1751-1836) He wrote & carried through, the “Bill of Rights.” Participant in the Constitutional Convention that formulated the fundamental structure of the U.S. government He shared authorship of many essays known as “The Federalist Papers” with Alexander Hamilton, John Jay – they were explanations of the political theory on which the U.S. constitution is based. Madison’s view of Politics: He believed in “popular sovereignty” of government.” He was definitely a conservative

29. James Madison (1751-1836) Even though he did not trust the people because his views were like that of Hobbes In “The Federalist No. 55,” he expressed “mixed feelings” about the nature of people [Madison’s view on humanity,p. 54) In “The Federalist (no. 10),” he described human nature in unambiguous Hobbesian terms Despite this, he did not share Hobbes confidence in strong government as a remedy for human shortcomings He believed in “individual Liberty as the main goal of a political system, just like Locke He believed that government when left unchecked, would be oppressive & cruel

30. James Madison (1751-1836) He advocated “separation of power” as part of checks & balances [“control through institutions,” p. 62) He wanted to protect the minorities using the Constitution [Restraints on majority tyranny, p. 58) He believed that people should rule themselves through a representative (elected representatives) democracy as contained in “Federalist (no. 10).” [“Control through representation,”p. 60) Madison & the Constitution of 1787 –p. 52 His idea are summed up as: freedom, liberty, right of resistance to arbitrary authority, government by consent –these were the ideology of the 1776 declaration of independence

31. James Madison (1751-1836) He had fear of monarchy, which was reflected in the “Articles of Confederacy.” It did not provide effective national leadership –& less powerful head of state this led to the “Shay Rebellion” in MA as far back as 1787 –p. 52 Madison divided the Legislature into 2 houses: “Upper & Lower Houses” (p. 63) each with similar, but not identical powers.” Representation in the Senate was by State; Representation in the House was by population –served as the “voice of the people.” with a minimum of 30,000 constituent per district Madisonian view

32. James Madison (1751-1836) On suffrage, he advocated “property qualification” for “electors to the House of Representatives.” They were considered freeholders of the country would be the “safest depositories of ‘Republican’ Liberty.”; but Voters and officeholders may not be property owners –p. 67