2. BONES 206 Bones are said to be in the Human Skeleton.
Although the human skeleton is initially made up of cartilages and fibrous membranes this is soon replaced by bone.

3. Bones Basic Structure, Types, and Locations
When discussing the skeleton is it essential to review over the types of cartilages found in the body.
Hyaline Cartilages
Elastic Cartilages
Fibrocartilages

4. Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage- Provides support with flexibility and resilience. Makes up the following in the human skeleton
1. articular cartilage- covers the ends of most bones
2. costal cartilage- connect ribs to sternum
3. respiratory cartilage – found in make up larynx
4. nasal cartilage- which support the external nose.

5. Cartilage
Elastic Cartilage- Very much like hyaline cartilage but ALSO contains more stretch elastic fibers and better able to stand repeated bending.
Makes up only 2 skeletal locations
1. external ear-
2. epiglottis- flap that covers the opening to the larynx each time we swallow.

6. Cartilage
Fibrocartilages Cartilage- are highly compressible and have great tensile strength. It is in between hyaline and elastic cartilages
Found in sites that are subjected to both heavy pressure and stretch.
1. Menisci- padlike cartilages of the knee
2. Disk between the vertebrae.

7. Cartilage
Always remember bone and cartilage are always distinct different tissues.
Bone has a hard matrix while cartilage has a flexible matrix that can accommodate mitosis.

8. Division of the Skeleton
Axial Skeleton- consists of the bony and cartilaginous parts that support and protect the organs of the head, neck and trunk.
Appendicular Skeleton- consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and bones that anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton.

9. Bone Structure
Bones differ in size and shape but have similar structure, development, and functions.
                                                 

10. Bone Classification Long Bones
Long longitudinal axes, and expanded end.
Ex: Forearm and thigh bones.

11. Bone Classification Short Bones
Cube like, with lengths and widths roughly equal .
Bones in the wrists and ankles.

12. Bone Classification Flat Bones
Plate like structure with broad surfaces
Ex: Ribs, scapulae, and some bones of the skull.

13. Bone Classification Irregular Bones
Variety of shapes and are usually connected to several other bones.
Ex: Vertebra, and some facial bones.

14. Bone Classification

15. Bone Function Bones shape, support, and protect body structures.
They also act as levers.
House tissue that produces bone/blood cells
Stores various inorganic salts.

16. Bone Function
Support- all the softer tissues of the body; they literally hang from the skeletal framework.
Protection- hard, bony “boxes” protect the delicate structures within them. Example: skull to brain
Movement- Muscles are anchored firmly to bones.

17. Bone Function Mineral and Growth Factor Storage-
Bone is a reservoir for minerals like calcium and phosphate. It also stores important growth factors.
Blood Cell Formation- Most blood formation or hematopoiesis occurs in the marrow cavities of certain bones.

18. Bone Structure
Because bones contain tissue they are considered an organ
They contain not only bone (osseous) tissue but nervous tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and epithelial tissue.

19. Bone Marking
Throughout the next month as you work with this bones you will need to recognize these markings during lab
Bones are rarely smooth..they display projections, depressions, and openings that serve as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment as joint surfaces or conduits for blood vessels and nerves.

20. Bone Marking
Projections (bulges) that grow outward from the bone surface includes
Heads, trochanters, spines, and others.
These are just a few a complete list is on pg 179

21. Bone Marking Bone depressions and opening include
Fossae, sinuses, foramina, and grooves
These are just a few a complete list is on pg 179

22. Bone Texture
When discussing bone texture the outward appearance has a smooth solid look to the naked eye and is referred to as Compact Bone
The internal layer is referred to as Spongy Bone and looks like a honeycomb.
We will discuss this in more detail later.

25. Structure of a Long Bone
Diaphysis- Shaft of the bone, located between epiphysis. A hollow tube made of hard compact bone, hence a rigid and strong structure light enough in weight to permit easy movement.
It surrounds a central medullary cavity…”Marrow cavity”
In adults the medullary cavity contains fat (yellow marrow) and is called yellow bone marrow cavity.

26. Structure of a Long Bone
Epiphysis-
The outer ends (joints) of a long bone.
The exterior of epiphysis is compact bone while the interior of epiphysis is spongy bone.
Outer portion of the epiphysis is coated with a layer of hyaline cartilage called Articular Cartilage. Functions like a small rubber cushion .
Red bone marrow fills in small spaces in the spongy bone composing the epiphyses.

27. Structure of a Long Bone
Epiphysis
Between the epiphysis and diaphysis of an adult long bone is an epiphyseal line and remnant of the epiphyseal plate.
The epiphyseal plate is a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen the bone.

28. Structure of a Long Bone

29. Structure of a Long Bone
Another structure in all long bones are membranes
Peristeum- a strong fibrous membrane covering a long bone except at joint surfaces, where it is covered by articular cartilage.
A thin membrane containing bone-forming cells called Endosteum lines the internal bone surfaces.

30. Structure of a Long Bone

31. 2 Types of Bone
Compact Bone- Wall of the diaphysis is mainly composed of this. Hard and dense; continues matrix with no gaps.
Spongy Bone- Found on the ends of the epiphysis…consists of many branching bony plates. Contains spaces that may be filled with marrow. The needle-like threads of spongy bone that surround a network of spaces are called trabeculae.

34. Microscopic- Anatomy of Bone
In Compact Bone the matrix is organized into numerous structural units called osteons or Haversian systems. Each circular and tube like osteon is composed of calcified matrix.
The rings are called a concentric lamella.
                      

35. Parts of the Long Bond
Draw and label the long bone on pg. 180 in book.

37. Bone Development
Ossification and Osteogenesis are synonyms meaning the process of bone formation.
In embryos this process leads to the formation of the bony skeleton
And continues on until early adulthood as the body continues to grow in size.

38. Bone Development

39. Bone Development
The first 8 weeks of development the human embryo is completely fibrous membranes and cartilage
Bones continue to grow and develop into adulthood.
Bones form by replacing existing connective tissue in one of two ways
Intramembranous Bones and Endochondral Bones

41. INTRAMEMBRANOUS BONES
When a bone develops from a fibrous membrane it is called intramembranous ossification and the bone is called a membrane bone.
Intramembranous ossification results in the formation of Flat Bones (Mostly of the skull and clavical).
During development membrane like layers of connective tissues appear at the area of future bones.
Layers supplied with blood vessels and tissue arranged around the vessels
Cells enlarge and change into bone-forming tissue called OSTEOBLAST.

42. ENDOCHONDRAL BONES Ex: Most all bones
They develop as hyaline cartilage that is later replaced by bone tissue.
This is more complex than intramembranous ossification because the hyaline cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds
Primary ossification centers appears in the diaphysis, whereas secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses
An epiphyseal plate remains between the primary and secondary ossification centers. Development proceeds from masses

43. Osteo….The different types bone cells.
Osteoblasts - make new bone and help repair damage;
Osteocytes- mature bone cells.carry nutrients and waste products to and from blood vessels in the bone;
Osteoclasts- break down,reabsorb bone and help to sculpt and shape it. Osteoclasts are very active in kids and teens, working on bone as it is remodeled during growth. They also play an important role in the repair of fractures.

44. Bone Growth- Epiphyseal Plate
The epiphyseal plates are responsible for lengthening.
Long bones continue to lengthen until the epiphyseal plates are ossified.
An epiphyseal plate consists of layers of cells: resting cells, young cells, older enlarging cells and dying cells.

45. Bone Growth- Epiphyseal Plate
Growth in thickness is due to intramembranous ossification beneath the periosteum.
The action of osteoclasts forms the medullary cavity.

47. HOMEOSTASIS OF BONE TISSUE
Osteoclast and osteoblast continually remodel bone.
The total mass of bone remains nearly constant throughout life. While it may appear to be lifeless it is VERY active
Adult skeleton normally recycles 5-7% of our bone mass a week…spongy bone replaced every 3-4 years, compact bone every 10.

48. Factor Affecting Bone Development
Sunlight, hormonal secretions, and exercise all affect bone development
Deficiencies of vitamin A,C, or D result in abnormal development.
Physical stress
Exercise thickens and strengthens bone tissue
Lack of activity can cause waste and thin tissue.

49. BONE- Blood Cell Formation
Hemopoiesis- the process of blood formation.
Begins in the yolk, which lies outside the embryo. Later in development, blood cells are manufactured in the liver, spleen, and still later they form in the bone marrow.

50. BONE- Blood Cell Formation
Marrow- soft tissue within the medullary cavity of long bones, in spongy bone, and in canals of compact bone tissue.

51. MARROW
RED MARROW-
Functions in the formation of red blood cells, white b.c’s and blood platelets
Occupies most cavities of infant bones, later replaced by yellow marrow.
Yellow Marrow
Stores fat
Inactive in blood cell production.
By adolescence, most of our marrow is yellow
Red blood cells only live about 120 days, they are replaced or recycled.

52. Inorganic Salt Storage
The intercellular matrix of bone tissue contains collagen and inorganic mineral salts.
The crystals that are formed are a type of CALCIUM phosphate.

53. The need for Calcium
Our body requires calcium for a number of vital metabolic processes;
Blood clot formation.
Nerve impulse conduction.
Muscles cell contractions.

54. The need for Calcium
When the blood is low in calcium, parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone tissue, releasing calcium salts from the intercellular matrix into the blood.

55. Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia- includes a number of disorders in which the bones are inadequately mineralized.
Rickets is the analogous disease in children….but because young bones are still growing rapidly it is much more severe. Bowed legs, deformities of the pelvis, skull and rib cage are common
Osteoporosis- a condition that results from loss of bone minerals.

56. Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis- refers to a disease in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposits.
Bones become fragile and therefore easily fractured. a condition that results from loss of bone minerals.

57. Osteoporosis

58. BONES 206 Bones are said to be in the Human Skeleton.
This numbers varies between people.
Structural bones may develop in the area where the flat bones of the skull fuse.

59. Bone Repair
Despite remarkable strength, bones are susceptible to fractures or break!
Resulting from twists or smashing of bones.
Excessive intake of vitamin A and elevated blood levels of the protein homocysteine may increase the risk as well as thin and weaken bones that accompany age.

60. Bone Repair
Non-displaced fractures- the bone will retain their normal position
Displaced Fractures- the bones are out of their normal position

61. Bone Repair
Complete Fracture- the bone is broken in two; completely through
Incomplete Fracture -the bone is not.

62. Bone Repair Linear Break- the break parallels the long axis
Transverse Break- the break is perpendicular to the bone’s long axis.

63. Bone Repair Compound Fracture- the bone ends penetrate the skin
Simple Fracture- the bone does NOT penetrate the skin.

65. Axial Skeleton Skull Hyoid bone
Vertebral column (which includes sacrum and coccyx)
Thoracic cage (which includes ribs and sternum)

66. Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral girdle (scapula, clavicle)
Upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges)
Pelvic girdle (as coxae, pelvis)
Lower limbs (femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges)