1. Stacks and Subroutines

2. Some example stacks

3. Stacks and subroutine usage The stack is a special area of the random access memory in the overall memory system The stack is used for oGeneral data storage (limited) oTemporary data storage (true) oParameter and control information storage for subroutines (yes!)

4. Stack Last-in, first-out (LIFO) structure All access is at the top of the stack Operations oPush  Places an item onto the stack oPull  Removes an item from the stack  Some (most!) people use the term “pop” Bottom of the stack is at highest memory address, and top of the stack is at the lowest address oStack grows from high to low address Cont..

5. Stack oFor EVBU, stack is usually placed at $01FF Stack Pointer (SP) oRegister that points to the memory location immediately preceding the top of the stack oIn other words, the SP normally contains the address for a new data item to be pushed Cont..

6. HC11 Implementation

7. PUSH Instructions Push instructions oPSHA, PSHB, PSHX, PSHY  Stores data in memory at address pointed to by SP  Decrements SP  For 16-bit values, low- order byte is pushed first, followed by high- order byte oHow can we push CCR?

8. PUSH Instructions Pull instructions oPULA, PULB, PULX, PULY  Increments SP  Loads data from memory address pointed to by SP

9. Other Stack Operations Other stack operations oCan modify or read the SP LDSLoad the SP STSStore the SP INSIncrement SP DESDecrement SP TSXTransfer SP+1 to IX TSYTransfer SP+1 to IY TXSTransfer IX-1 to SP TYSTransfer IY-1 to SP

10. Stacks Stacks oRemember to initialize SP at beginning of oprogram oImportant to pull data in reverse order that you pushed it oNote that SP points to empty memory location (= location where next value will be stored)

11. Using the Stacks Using the stack oPassing parameters to subroutines (more on this later) oTemporary storage  68HC11 has limited number of registers  Use stack to preserve register values Example: Multiply ACCA and ACCB, round to 8 bits PSHB ; save value in ACCB MUL ; ACCD = ACCA*ACCB ADCA #$00 ; round to 8 bits PULB ; restore ACCB Cont..

12. Using the Stacks Using the stack oYou can also use the stack to save intermediate ovalues oExample: (Listing 3.1 in text) This calculates x squared plus y squared. x and y are 8-bit numbers stored in addresses $1031 and $1032. The 8-bit result is put in ACCA. ORG $E000 BEGIN: LDS #$FF ; initialize SP LDAA $1031 ; get x value TAB ; square it Cont..

13. Using the Stacks MUL ADCA #$00 ; round to 8 bits PSHA ; save it LDAA $1032 ; get y value TAB ; square it MUL ADCA #$00 ; round to 8 bits PULB ; retrieve first result ABA ; add them

14. Dangers Using the Stacks Dangers in using the stack oOverflow  Too many pushes Stack grows so large that it overwrites portions of memory that are being used for other purposes  Example: ORG $E0 FOO RMB 2 ORG $E000 LDS #$FF ; initialize SP LDAB #$FF ; initialize loop count LOOP: Cont..

15. Dangers Using the Stacks PSHA ; push value on stack DECB ; decrement count BNE LOOP ; and repeat oUnderflow  Too many pulls  SP points to address higher than the intended bottom of the stack oThe HC11 does not protect you from overflow or underflow!  Only way to recover is to reset the system  Be aware of the stack size that your program needs. Cont..

16. Dangers Using the Stacks oTypical memory layout for EVBU:  512 bytes of RAM ($00-$1FF)  $00 - $FF used by Buffalo monitor Don’t use these locations in your programs  User variables should start at $100 ($100-?)  Stack starts at $1FF (? - $1FF)  More variables = less stack space

17. Subroutine Why use them? oProvides modularity to reduce program complexity oCreates many smaller, but more easily developed and tested program units oMay save on memory space (to store program) oCan be reused in different parts of a program oCan be placed in a library for use by many programs and applications Subroutines should... oBe small, to ease writing, testing, and modifying oHave a well defined purpose oHave a well defined interface Cont..

18. Subroutine oBe well documented (like the rest of the program!)  Describe input parameters Registers, memory locations, values on the stack, etc.  Describe output parameters Registers, memory locations, stack, condition codes  Describe any side effects Registers that are changed, condition codes, etc.

19. Example of proper Documentation Format Example of proper documentation format: ;****************************** ; Function: ToUpper ; This function replaces all lower-case ; characters in a string with upper-case. ; The end of the string is marked with ; $00. ; Input: IX = starting address of string ; Output: none ; Registers affected: ACCA, CCR ;*******************************

20. Calling Subroutines Calling a subroutine JSR sbr BSR sbr Address of next instruction (return address) is pushed onto the stack  This is the current value of PC oPC is loaded with the starting address of the subroutine  Next instruction fetched will be from the subroutine

21. Returning Subroutine Returning from a subroutine oRTS instruction oMust be the last instruction in subroutine oPops return address off the stack, loads it into PC  Next instruction fetch will be the instruction following the JSR/BSR oIf your subroutine manipulates the stack, be aware of where the return address is stored.  It must be at the top of the stack when you execute the RTS

22. Subroutine Parameter Passing Subroutine parameter passing -- how are the parameters / arguments for the subroutine passed to it? oRegisters  Parameters are placed in predetermined register locations  Simple and fast  Number of parameters is limited by the number of "free" registers  Code is not reentrant oDedicated memory  A series of (predetermined) memory locations are used to hold the parameters Cont..

23. Subroutine Parameter Passing  Simple, but added overhead due to memory operations  Possible to pass many parameters  Code is not reentrant oPointer to memory  Pass the subroutine a register value containing the address of the parameters in memory  More complex, extra overhead for use of the pointer  Code is reentrant oUse the stack  Parameters, in addition to the return address, are pushed onto the stack -- the combination is called the stack frame You must push the parameters before the JSR/BSR Cont..

24. Subroutine Parameter Passing  Requires care in manipulating the parameters Don’t forget about the return address!  Many parameters can be passed  Separate parameter stack can be created and used in addition to the system stack  Code is reentrant

25. Example Example: oTiming delay  Write a subroutine that will delay for a specified number of milliseconds. The delay time is passed as a parameter in ACCB. The subroutine should also preserve the contents of all registers as well as the condition codes oMain program: LDAB #$0A ; delay for 10 ms JSR DELAY

26. Example Example: oWrite a subroutine to find the maximum of two signed 8-bit numbers. The two numbers are passed to the subroutine on the stack, and the maximum is returned to the calling routine on the stack. oMain program: LDAA #$73 ; load the 2 values LDAB #$A8 PSHA ; push them on the stack PSHB JSR MAX ; find the max PULA ; pull max off stack

27. Example Example: ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ; Subroutine - MAX ; This subroutine returns the maximum of 2 ; signed 8-bit numbers. ; Input - The 2 numbers are passed on the stack ; Output - The maximum is returned on the stack ; Registers used - ACCA, ACCB, IY, CCR ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; MAX: PULY ; save return address PULB ; get the 2 numbers Cont..

28. Example PULA CBA ; compare them BGT A_IS_MAX ; branch if ACCA > ACCB B_IS_MAX: PSHB ; return the value in ACCB BRA MAX_EXIT A_IS_MAX: PSHA ; return the value in ACCA MAX_EXIT: PSHY ; put return address back on stack RTS ; and return

29. Example Example: oConvert an 8-bit hex number into 2 ASCII characters  For example, convert $3F into ‘3’ and ‘F’ oThe hex number is passed to the subroutine on the stack, and the 2 ASCII characters are returned on the stack, with the high-order character on top. oMain program: LDAA #$3F ; get hex number PSHA JSR HEX_TO_ASCII ; convert it PULB ; ACCB = ‘3’ = $33 PULA ; ACCA = ‘F’ = $46

30. Example Example oConverting hex digit to 2 ASCII characters  Pseudo code: Get hex digit from stack Convert lower nibble to ASCII Push char on stack Convert upper nibble to ASCII Push char on stack Return oWe’ll use a second subroutine to convert a nibble to ASCII  Note that the ASCII codes for 0-9 are $30-$39, and the codes for A-F are $41-$46 Cont..

31. Example  Pseudo code: Add #$30 to nibble If (result > $39) Add #$07 Return

32. Example Example: ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ; Subroutine - CONVERT_NIBBLE ; This subroutine converts a nibble (4-bit value) ; to ASCII. ; Input: ACCB contains the nibble ; Output: ACCB contains the ASCII code ; Registers affected: None ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; CONVERT_NIBBLE: PSHA ; save ACCA Cont..

33. Example TPA ; save CCR PSHA ADDB #$30 ; convert to ASCII CMPB #$39 ; is nibble > 9? BLS CN_EXIT ; branch if not ADDB #$07 ; for A-F CN_EXIT: PULA ; restore CCR TAP PULA ; restore ACCA RTS ; return

34. Example Example: ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ; Subroutine - HEX_TO_ASCII ; This subroutine converts an 8-bit hex number ; to two ASCII digits. ; Input: Hex number is passed on the stack ; Output: ASCII characters are returned on the ; stack, with the high-order nibble on top. ; Registers affected: ACCA, ACCB, IY, CCR ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; HEX_TO_ASCII: PULY ; save return address Cont..

35. Example PULA ; get hex number TAB ; copy it to ACCB ANDB #$0F ; get lower nibble JSR CONVERT_NIBBLE PSHB ; save ASCII on stack TAB ; get hex number again LSRB ; get upper nibble LSRB JSR CONVERT_NIBBLE Cont..

36. Example PSHB ; save ASCII on stack PSHY ; push return address RTS ; and return

37. Summary Summary oStack  Be sure to initialize the stack pointer at the beginning of your program LDS #$1FF Don’t do this if you’re calling your program from Buffalo Buffalo initializes SP for you  Push and Pull operations  Remember SP points to next empty location

38. Summary Summary oSubroutines  Break your program into subroutines Well-defined (and documented!) function Well-defined (and documented!) interface  Passing parameters Use registers if possible Else, use stack if needed oDon’t forget about the return address