1. Radioactive Waste Arising, Management Options and Waste Classification
David Bennett
14 – 18 December 2014
JAEC, Amman, Jordan

2. Outline of Lecture This lecture provides:
An overview of radioactive waste arising from various practices, and the rationale for waste classification systems
A description of the IAEA system of radioactive waste classification
Based on “Classification of Radioactive Waste”, IAEA Safety Series No. GSG - 1 (2009)
A summary of management approaches used for different types of waste
Examples of final disposal choices
The purpose of this lecture is to provide an overview of radioactive waste arisings and classification, waste characteristics and management options. It also includes an introduction to the IAEA waste classification system.

3. Introduction Radioactive waste arises from many different activities:
Operation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities (e.g. nuclear power plants)
Application of radionuclides in industry, medicine, and research
Cleanup of contaminated sites
Processing of raw materials containing naturally occurring radionuclides
Radioactive waste is associated with a variety of different industries. There are different risks depending on the nature of the wastes.
Waste containing or contaminated with radionuclides arises from a number of activities involving the use of radioactive materials, such as the operation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities and the application of radionuclides in industry, medicine and research. Radioactive waste is also generated in the cleanup of sites affected by radioactive residues from various operations or from accidents, and can arise in the processing of raw materials containing naturally occurring radionuclides. The nature of this waste is likely to be such that its safe management must take into account radiation safety considerations. In addition to the waste that must be managed and eventually disposed of, some of the materials arising during the aforementioned activities are of value and may be reused or recycled.

4. Sources of Radioactive Waste (1)
Nuclear fuel cycle - Power generation
Operational waste
Ion exchange resins, evaporation and filtering residues
Metal scrap, thermal insulation material, protective clothing
Very low to medium level concentrations of radionuclides
Spent nuclear fuel
Large inventory, wide range of radionuclides
Decommissioning waste
Very low to high concentrations
Mainly activation products
Large amounts / volumes
Radioactive waste from the nuclear fuel cycle includes a diverse mix of liquid, gaseous, and solid wastes with a wide range of radioactivity levels.
This waste includes, of course, the highly-radioactive spent nuclear fuel containing a wide range of radionuclides, among them uranium, plutonium and their decay products as well as a very broad range of fission products. This spent fuel in some countries is considered waste in itself; in other countries it is reprocessed to separate the economically useful U and Pu from the waste fission products. In either case the high-level waste is highly dangerous and requires sophisticated remote handling techniques, and disposal methods must take into account the significant heat generated and the need for shielding at all times.
Operational waste includes a variety of lower-level wastes, either in the form of filtering residues (e.g. ion exchange resins) or as contaminated supplies (e.g. clothing) containing fission and activation products.
Decommissioning of nuclear power stations gives rise to large volumes of contaminated material, including some highly-activated reactor components as well as structural materials that may be only slightly contaminated by activation products and/or fission products.

5. Activity Levels in LILW from Reactors
This is an example of the activity levels in low and intermediate level radioactive waste associated with nuclear power plants. Note that the majority of the radioactivity is associated with short lived radionuclides that can be managed for decay (Fe-55, Co-60).

6. Sources of Radioactive Waste (2)
Nuclear fuel cycle - Other
Mining and milling and U ore extraction
Large quantities
Enhanced levels naturally occurring radionuclides
Radium-226, radon-222
Chemical refining
Small amounts of waste
Enrichment
Depleted uranium (a waste)?
Reprocessing of spent fuel
Other parts of the nuclear fuel cycle also produce wastes.
These include very large volumes of milling wastes containing the decay products of natural uranium, such as radium and radon and radon daughters, often significantly concentrated compared to the original ore. These pose particular problems because of the very long lifetimes of some of the members of the radioactive decay chains, combined with high radioactivity of some of their daughter products.
Facilities in the fuel cycle where the ore is refined, enriched and processed into fuel also result in radioactive waste, containing mostly uranium, but because of the economic value of the uranium, the volumes released as waste are usually relatively low. One exception to this would be in the case of depleted uranium tails from enrichment, which in some cases may be considered waste. This material will pose similar problems to naturally-occurring uranium, including not only the direct toxicity of the uranium but also the buildup on long time scales of daughter products (radium and radon).
As mentioned in the previous slide, the HLW resulting from reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel in countries where that is part of the fuel cycle poses particular hazards.

7. Tailings Properties Mine Ore Grade (%) Uranium Production (t)
Volume of Tailings
Uranium / Tailings
Ratio
Beaverlodge
0.21
21,236
10,100,000
475
Key Lake
1.95
71,611
4,400,000 61
McArthur
12.75
160,200 27
Notice the very large volumes (masses) of tailings from typical mines. Although much of the uranium may have been removed, the other radioisotopes in the decay chains from the original uranium, including radium, radon and radon daughters, remain in the tailings, and in fact have been made much more available for transport in the environment as a result of the milling process.
High grade ores produce a smaller quantity of tailings per tonne of U produced. So we see here that McArthur ore at 12.75% uranium produce far less tailings per tonne of uranium produced than Beaverlodge where the U content is lower. But we also find that high grade ores produce high grade tailings so we would find proportionately much more Ra, Rn, etc. in the tailings at McArthur than at Beaverlodge. In fact, to a first approximation the total amount of radium in the tailings is proportional to the total amount of uranium produced.

8. Sources of Radioactive Waste (3)
Industrial applications
Production of radioactive sources
Use of radioactive sources
Sealed sources
Thickness, level and density gauges
Industrial radiography, sterilization facilities
Large number of potentially hazardous sources
Unsealed sources
Tracers, monitoring
Mostly short-lived radionuclides
Co-60, Cs-137, Ir-192, Am-241,…
Radionuclides are used extensively in industrial research, quality control of materials and constructions, for measuring thickness, density or volume of materials, in geological exploration, agricultural research, and even in household devices like smoke detectors.
Radionuclide applications usually involve use of:
-small quantities of radionuclides as tracers to follow the fate of certain chemicals or chemical elements or
-sealed sources, frequently with relatively high radioactivity levels, for irradiation of other materials to change their properties or as heat/power source.
For the most part, these are relatively short-lived (as compared with naturally occurring radioisotopes), but some of them may be very highly radioactive and hazardous. Safety and security of sealed sources is of particular importance because of the possibility of accidental (or malicious) exposure of members of the public to radiation at hazardous levels if these sources are not kept safe and secure.

9. Sources of Radioactive Waste (4)
Medical applications
Diagnosis and treatment
Large number of administrations and operations
Short-lived liquid and solid wastes
High-activity sealed sources
Tc-99m, I-131, P-32, Y-90, Sr-89
Co-60, Ir-192, Cs-137
Radionuclides are used extensively in the medical field for clinical measurements, clinical diagnosis and therapy, and biological research, in the form of sealed sources, substrata containing radioisotopes and marked molecules.
Radionuclides commonly used in these applications tend to have relatively short half-lives (i.e. a few hours to about one year). Exceptions include 14C (with a half-life of about 5600 years), 60Co (with a half-life of about 5 years), 137Cs with a half-life of about 30 years, and, in the past, 226Ra with a half-life of 1600 years (and several progeny, including radon and radon daughters).

10. Sources of Radioactive Waste (5)
Research and development
Wide variety of uses
Wide variety of techniques
Other
Historical sources - radium processing
Defense programs - “legacy” wastes
Cleanup of contaminated sites has proven to be a large source of radioactive waste and also poses a number of challenges in terms of predisposal waste management. Sites can become contaminated with radioactivity in a number of different ways. Accidents, such as the dispersal of Cs-137 from a disused piece of medical equipment that was broken into, resulted in a large amount of contamination in Goiania, Brazil. A dedicated disposal facility was constructed for those wastes. Nuclear research and weapons production activities are also the source of contaminated sites in a number of countries.

11. Sources of Radioactive Waste (6)
Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) Wastes
Phosphate industry
Production of metals
Refractory materials
Energy Production (Oil and Gas, Coal, Biomass, Geothermal)
Usually large volumes, Ra-226, Rn-222
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) comprise materials whose radioactive component comes from natural sources. The most obvious example are wastes arising in the mining, milling and smelting of uranium. But there are many other sources. In some cases the radioactivity content may be increased by the processing – either deliberately or not - and you may hear these referred to as “Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials” or TENORM. IAEA does not use this nomenclature because of the difficulty in deciding what is NORM and what is TENORM so we won’t use this term again in this leacture. The radioactive properties of NORM may be incidental to their use, but, especially if the radioactivity is concentrated as a result of human activities, these materials may be sufficiently radioactive to be classed as ILW. NORM can require management as radioactive waste. A variety of potential hazards exist from relatively low activities in large amounts of waste (up to millions or billions of tons each year) (coal ash, phosphogypsum, mining and mineral processing waste and produced water) to relatively large activities in smaller amounts of waste (e.g., scales from oil and gas wells, drinking water treatment wastes, concentrated mining residues).
(See IAEA Tech Report Series No. 419 and Safety Guide SR-34 on Oil and Gas Industry)
NORM poses a radiological concern due to the long-lived nature of the radionuclides (Ra-226, Uranium, Thorium) found in NORM wastes and due to the difficulties and cost of managing the very large amounts of waste that can be produced. Often the wastes are managed in piles that are covered or placed back in mines. In some cases, liquids are dispersed on the ground for evaporative treatment. As the liquid evaporates, radionuclides become concentrated in the surface soils.
Mining and mineral processing is the largest source of NORM wastes due to the scale of the operations involved.
For radionuclides posing more significant hazards such as some scales from oil and gas wells, the waste may be managed as LILW and disposed in a licensed facility.

12. Radioactivity in NORM
NORM hazards are primarily associated with the decay chains for Th-232 and U-238, but other radionuclides, such as K-40, are also present in some wastes (e.g., phosphogypsum processing). The data on this slide are just rough ranges of concentrations that have been obtained from a variety of literature sources and include some extreme values that are very rare (e.g., the upper bound for scales in pipes and equipment), but such extremes provide perspective about the potential hazards that can be encountered. The primary radionuclide is often Ra-226, which is relatively long lived and does have a relatively high radiotoxicity.
For perspective, clearance levels for Ra-226 are on the order of 1000 Bq/kg.
Natural gas supply equipment can be contaminated with Rn decay products that are difficult to detect without sampling.
Identify and discuss some of the higher activities, e.g., drinking water resins, scales in general.

13. Waste Properties Radiological properties radionuclide contents
half-lives
radiation intensity
heat generation
surface contamination
criticality risk
Biological properties:
potential biological hazards
Physical properties
physical state (solid, liquid, gas)
weight and volume
volatility
dispersability (e.g. powders)
compactability
combustibility
Chemical properties
stability/reactivity (e.g. oxidizing)
corrosive
organic content
gas generation
solubility, miscibility
complexation/sorption of radionuclides
As this list demonstrates, there is a wide range of properties that must be considered when managing and processing radioactive wastes, most of which also impact directly upon safety.
For purposes of waste classification, a subset of these properties needs to be selected as the primary basis for classification. For example, the half-life, intensity of radiation and heat-generating properties of the waste might be the focus of a classification system.

14. Waste Management Approaches
Waste and materials
Pre-treatment
Effluent discharge
Recycling and re-use
Treatment
Conditioning
Clearance
Disposal

15. Waste Management Approaches (1)
Decay Storage – hold the waste in storage until sufficient decay has occurred for desired management approach
The principal approaches to the management of radioactive waste are commonly termed ‘delay and decay’, ‘concentrate and contain’ and ‘dilute and disperse’. ‘Delay and decay’ involves holding the waste in storage until the desired reduction in activity has occurred through radioactive decay of the radionuclides contained in the waste. This is effective for many short-lived wastes from radionuclide applications, but can also be used as a minimization approach in the nuclear fuel cycle, e.g. by removing the highest-activity shortest-lived isotopes from the need for further consideration.

16. Waste Management Approaches (2)
Concentrate and Contain – reduce waste volume and condition and/or containerize waste to limit dispersion in the environment
‘Concentrate and contain’ means reduction of volume and confinement of the radionuclide contents by means of a conditioning process to prevent dispersion in the environment.

17. Waste Management Approaches (3)
Dilute and Disperse – discharge the waste in a manner that reduces environmental concentrations to acceptable levels
‘Dilute and disperse’ means discharging waste to the environment in such a way that environmental conditions and processes ensure that the concentrations of the radionuclides are reduced to such levels that the radiological impact of the released material is acceptable.
Summary for three slides:
In establishing policies regarding the choice of waste management approaches, consideration has to be given to the radiological impacts of the different options. From a radiological protection perspective, a balance has to be struck between the present exposures resulting from the dispersal of radionuclides in the environment and potential future exposures which could result as a consequence of radioactive waste disposal.
The first two approaches (‘delay and decay’, ‘concentrate and contain’) require that radioactive waste be held in storage for varying lengths of time or placed in a disposal facility with a view to preventing its release to the environment. Radioactive waste must therefore be processed, as necessary, in such a way that it can be safely placed and held in a storage or disposal facility.
The third approach (‘dilute and disperse’) is a legitimate practice in the management of radioactive waste when it is carried out within authorized limits established by the regulatory body.

18. Spent Fuel Management Options
Interim storage for later use or reprocessing, or for cooling prior to direct disposal
Reprocessing gives new fuel and HLW, which can be vitrified for geological disposal
Direct geological disposal
There are two main strategic alternative approaches to managing spent fuel from nuclear power paths: (a) reprocessing and (b) direct disposal.
The decision on an option for the management of spent fuel will be a complex one in any State and there will be many constraints that will influence the final outcome. Storage is the first step in all alternatives for the management of spent fuel, and for each technical approach the final step is disposal. The deferral of a final decision on which alternative to take necessitates the storage of spent fuel while the alternatives are under consideration.
Processing of liquid HLW from reprocessing involves a complex combination of pretreatment, treatment, conditioning, and storage.

19. Why do we Need a Waste Classification?
We classify - for safety, engineering, operational and regulatory reasons:
Devising radioactive waste management strategies, planning, designing and operating waste management facilities
Facilitates record keeping and giving a broad indication of the potential hazards involved in the various types of waste at the operational level
Communication between interested parties by providing well understood terminology (e.g., Joint Convention)
The purpose of a waste classification system is to aid in planning and communication. If every waste form is described in terms of a complete list of properties such as the one on the previous slide, it is very difficult to develop an overall strategy that covers all waste forms, and there is a danger that the management of the waste will be fragmented into a number of small facilities, which is inefficient, costly and can be less safe for the public and the environment.
In addition, communication about waste is highly important, not only between different groups today, but also between this generation and succeeding generations who will need to have available to them records of wastes that have been disposed of. This communication is facilitated by having a common, understood terminology, and waste classification forms part of that common terminology.

20. Why do we Need a Waste Classification?
Allows appropriate decisions to be made at each step of waste management lifecycle
Provides a systematic foundation for waste segregation
Enable efficient management by operators (otherwise decisions are ad hoc or made on case by case basis)
Provides essential input for national waste management policy and strategy development
One might ask: Do we really need a classification system?
In response to this question: if there is no classification system, a number of undesirable consequences are possible:
Low and high activity wastes can get mixed – this increases the volume of waste that must be managed as high-level waste in order to assure safety, and this increase in volume, besides increasing costs, violates the fundamental principle of waste minimization.
Without classification, there is a poor basis for decisions on treatment, packaging, storage & disposal.
Poor segregation can lead to mixing of wastes in different categories, requiring all wastes to be treated as though they contained all hazards.
It is difficult to structure a systematic RP programme for a system where the materials being processed are highly heterogeneous.
Without clear classification there is a weak basis for planning national WM strategy.
Lack of classification makes it difficult to measure performance for operational improvements.

21. Possible Approaches to Classification
Some of the possible ways to classify waste:
Classification by origin
Nuclear fuel cycle, isotope production,..
Classification by physical state
Solid, liquid, gaseous
Classification by activity concentration
Very Low Level waste (VLLW), Low Level Waste (LLW), Intermediate Level Waste (ILW), High level Waste (HLW)
Classification by half-life
Short-lived waste, long-lived waste
Some of the possible ways to classify waste are based on the most obvious and important properties of the waste: physical state, activity concentration and half-life. These attributes are directly related to safety and hazard assessment, and therefore classification based on them aids planning for safety of waste management.
Some other possible choices, such as classification by origin, are less directly related to safety or to other technical requirements for management, and may be based instead on more administrative concerns such as determining who is financially responsible for their management. However, a system based on such a choice can obscure the safety issues which are most important in the long term, and thus make development of a comprehensive strategy more difficult.

22. Waste Classification System Attributes
An ideal waste classification system would:
Cover all types of radioactive waste
Address all stages of waste management
Relate waste classes to potential hazard
Be flexible
Not change accepted terminology
Be simple, easy to understand
Be universally applicable
No such system exists!
In order to meet the purposes described earlier, a waste classification system should ideally have the properties listed on this slide.
It should come as no surprise that no such ideal system exists; this is no doubt one of the reasons behind the variety of national systems still in use.

23. New IAEA Waste Classification
supersedes
2010
1994

24. Classification Systems vs Waste Acceptance Criteria
Waste classification systems
Depend on national policy and strategy for the safe management of radioactive waste
Provides a national system of classification for managing all types of radioactive waste
Waste Acceptance Criteria:
WAC provide detailed specifications that the waste should meet before it can be accepted at a waste storage or disposal facility
WAC are specific to a particular facility
WAC are defined (in part) using the safety assessment and safety case for the waste management facility
It should be noted that a classification system is not the same as the waste acceptance criteria used by individual facilities or repositories to perform triage on incoming material. WAC are by their nature specific to a particular facility, and often include detailed requirements and specifications related to a wide range of properties as discussed earlier. While this serves the purpose of safe operation of the individual facility, it does not respond to the need for a broader classification system for strategic planning and communication.

25. Summary of IAEA System GSG - 1
Objectives
To set out a general scheme for classifying radioactive waste that is based primarily on considerations of long term safety, and thus, by implication, disposal of the waste
To identify the conceptual boundaries between different classes of waste and provides guidance on their definition on the basis of long term safety considerations
The objective of this Safety Guide is to set out a general scheme for classifying radioactive waste that is based primarily on considerations of long term safety, and thus, by implication, disposal of the waste. This Safety Guide, together with other IAEA safety standards on radioactive waste, will assist in the development and implementation of appropriate waste management strategies and will facilitate communication and information exchange within and among States. Disposal is considered the final step in the management of radioactive waste, as stipulated in Safety Requirements publications on predisposal management of radioactive waste and disposal of radioactive waste.
The Safety Guide identifies the conceptual boundaries between different classes of waste and provides guidance on their definition on the basis of long term safety considerations. While the usefulness is recognized of classification schemes for the safe operational management of radioactive waste, including the transport of waste, such schemes are subject to different considerations and are not addressed in this Safety Guide.

26. Summary of IAEA System GSG - 1
Scope:
From waste spent nuclear fuel to radioactive materials having such low levels of radioactivity that they do not need to be managed or regulated as radioactive waste
Also covers disused sealed radiation sources (DSRS), when they are considered waste, and waste containing radionuclides of natural origin.
This Safety Guide provides guidance on the classification of the whole range of radioactive waste: from spent nuclear fuel, when it is considered radioactive waste, to waste having such low levels of activity concentration that it is not required to be managed or regulated as radioactive waste. This Safety Guide covers disused sealed sources, when they are considered aste, and waste containing radionuclides of natural origin. The recommendations in this Safety Guide are applicable to waste arising from all origins, including waste arising from facilities and activities, waste arising from existing situations and waste that may arise from accidents.
The classification scheme developed in this Safety Guide is focused on solid radioactive waste. However, the fundamental approach could also be applicable to the management of liquid and gaseous waste, with appropriate consideration given to aspects including the processing of such waste to produce a solid waste form that is suitable for disposal.

27. Summary of IAEA System GSG - 1
The following waste types are defined:
Exempt waste
Very short lived waste (VSLW)
Very low level waste (VLLW)
Low level waste (LLW)
Intermediate level waste (ILW)
High level waste (HLW)
The term ‘exempt waste’ has been retained from the previous classification scheme for consistency; however, once such waste has been cleared from regulatory control, it is not considered radioactive waste.
The IAEA’s waste classification system is based on the radiological properties of the waste. It divides waste into six broad categories:
(1) Exempt waste4 (EW): Waste that meets the criteria for clearance, exemption or exclusion from regulatory control for radiation protection purposes as described in GSR Part 3.
(2) Very short lived waste (VSLW): Waste that can be stored for decay over a limited period of up to a few years and subsequently cleared from regulatory control according to arrangements approved by the regulatory body, for uncontrolled disposal, use or discharge. This class includes waste containing primarily radionuclides with very short half-lives often used for research and medical purposes.
(3) Very low level waste (VLLW): Waste that does not necessarily meet the criteria of EW, but that does not need a high level of containment and isolation and, therefore, is suitable for disposal in near surface landfill type facilities with limited regulatory control. Such landfill type facilities may also contain other hazardous waste. Typical waste in this class includes soil and rubble with low levels of activity concentration. Concentrations of longer lived radionuclides in VLLW are generally very limited.
(4) Low level waste (LLW): Waste that is above clearance levels, but with limited amounts of long lived radionuclides. Such waste requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a few hundred years and is suitable for disposal in engineered near surface facilities. This class covers a very broad range of waste. LLW may include short lived radionuclides at higher levels of activity concentration, and also long lived radionuclides, but only at relatively low levels of activity concentration.
(5) Intermediate level waste (ILW): Waste that, because of its content, particularly of long lived radionuclides, requires a greater degree of containment and isolation than that provided by near surface disposal. However, ILW needs no provision, or only limited provision, for heat dissipation during its storage and disposal. ILW may contain long lived radionuclides, in particular, alpha emitting radionuclides that will not decay to a level of activity concentration acceptable for near surface disposal during the time for which institutional controls can be relied upon. Therefore, waste in this class requires disposal at greater depths, of the order of tens of metres to a few hundred metres.
(6) High level waste (HLW): Waste with levels of activity concentration high enough to generate significant quantities of heat by the radioactive decay process or waste with large amounts of long lived radionuclides that need to be considered in the design of a disposal facility for such waste. Disposal in deep, stable geological formations usually several hundred metres or more below the surface is the generally recognized option for disposal of HLW.
Quantitative values of allowable activity content for each significant radionuclide should be specified on the basis of safety assessments for individual disposal sites (which is outside the scope of this Safety Guide).

28. Exempt Waste (EW)
Waste that has been cleared, exempted or excluded from regulation
Described in Safety Guide RS-G-1.7 “Application of the Concepts of Exclusion, Exemption and Clearance” (2004)

29. Very Short Lived Waste (VSLW)
Waste that can be stored for decay over a limited period of up to a few years and subsequently cleared for uncontrolled disposal or discharge after a suitable period of storage.
This would include radioactive waste containing short half life radionuclides typically used for research and medical purposes.

30. Very Low Level Waste (VLLW)
Waste containing material that can be slightly above the exempt region
Typical waste would include soil and rubble with activity low enough not to require shielding
Disposal facilities for such waste do not need a high level of containment and isolation and near surface landfill is generally suitable

31. Low Level Waste (LLW)
Waste that contains material with radionuclide content above clearance levels, but with limited amounts of long lived activity
LLW includes a very broad band of materials that includes very high activity waste with short half life that requires shielding and some long lived material at relatively low activity levels. …………..
LLW requires robust isolation and containing for periods of up to a few hundred (e.g. 300) years, but would not be hazardous beyond that period of time.

32. Intermediate Level Waste (ILW)
Waste which, because of its high radionuclide content and the potential mobility of the materials involved requires a higher level of containment and isolation than is provided by near surface disposal
However, needs little or no provision for heat dissipation during its handling, transportation and disposal
ILW may include long lived waste that will not decay to an acceptable activity level during the time which institutional controls can be relied upon

33. High Level Waste (HLW)
Waste with radioactivity levels intense enough to generate significant quantities of heat by the radioactive decay process or with large amounts of long lived activity which need to be considered in the design of a disposal facility for the waste
HLW includes spent reactor fuel which has been declared as waste, vitrified waste from the processing of reactor fuel and any other waste requiring the degree of containment and isolation provided by geological disposal
Geological disposal in deep, stable formations is the preferred disposal option

34. Summary of IAEA System GSG - 1
Half-life
Activity content
VSLW very short lived waste (decay storage)
HLW high level waste (deep geologic disposal)
ILW intermediate level waste (intermediate depth disposal)
LLW low level waste (near surface disposal)
VLLW very low level waste (landfill disposal)
EW exempt waste (exemption / clearance)

35. Summary of IAEA System GSG - 1
The following options for management of radioactive waste are considered:
Exemption or clearance
Storage for decay
Disposal in engineered surface landfill type facilities
Disposal in engineered facilities such as trenches, vaults or shallow boreholes, at the surface or at depths down to a few tens of metres
Disposal in engineered facilities at intermediate depths between a few tens of metres and several hundred metres (including existing caverns) and disposal in boreholes of small diameter
Disposal in engineered facilities located in deep stable geological formations at depths of a few hundred metres or more
The degree of containment and isolation provided in the long term varies according to the disposal option selected. The classification scheme set out in this publication is based on the consideration of long term safety provided by the different disposal options currently adopted or envisaged for radioactive waste. In the classification scheme, the following options for management of radioactive waste are considered, with an increasing degree of containment and isolation in the long term:
—Exemption or clearance;
—Storage for decay;
—Disposal in engineered surface landfill type facilities;
—Disposal in engineered facilities such as trenches, vaults or shallow boreholes, at the surface or at depths down to a few tens of metres;
—Disposal in engineered facilities at intermediate depths between a few tens of metres and several hundred metres (including existing caverns) and disposal in boreholes of small diameter;
—Disposal in engineered facilities located in deep stable geological formations at depths of a few hundred metres or more.
The depth of disposal is only one of the factors that will influence the adequacy of a particular disposal facility; all the safety requirements for disposal as established in SSR Part 5 will apply.

36. Summary of IAEA System GSG - 1
Waste types
Safety Principles and Requirements
Regulatory Aspects
Technological Aspects
Economical Aspects
Social Aspects
Interim Storage
Near-Surface Disposal
Geological Disposal
Surface Disposal

37. Classification as Practiced
Many member states have defined their own classification systems, customized to fit national needs
As part of Joint Convention, each country reports on national system of waste classification and reports a national inventory of radioactive waste
The proposed IAEA classification system has been adopted in some countries, but most countries continue to use their own national system of classification. In many cases this is based on the disposal endpoint. When that disposal endpoint is not delayed, this may not be a problem, but if disposal is deferred, there is a risk that the waste acceptance criteria (WAC) for the final disposal system may not be the same as originally envisaged, and a classification system which does not supply enough additional information to ensure that the new WAC will be met will be inadequate.
Within the international arena, the Joint Convention requires Contracting Parties (countries) to report on their national waste management systems and inventories. The use of different national classification systems makes the peer review process more difficult, a point which has been remarked upon in the summary reports on the review meetings under the Joint Convention.

38. Waste Disposal Options
Surface Disposal
Borehole Injection
Geological Disposal
Near-Surface Disposal
This slide provides some examples of disposal concepts. Mined areas can be used for surface disposal of mining wastes or in the case of the photo in the upper left, also the ash and residues (NORM) from a coal fired power plant. Well injection is a form of geological disposal that is used for ground-up scales from oil and gas (NORM) as shown in the figure in the upper right. Surface discharge, including planned blending with surface soil, is used for some sludges from the oil and gas industry as shown in the photo in the bottom right, near surface disposal is used for many LILW (can be vaults like the center photo or engineered pits), and geological disposal is also used for HLW as well as LILW, including long-lived LILW as shown in the example in the lower left.

39. Waste Types and Disposal Options (cont.)
NORM
DSS
LILW
HLW
EXC
LOW
ENH SV LV A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2 V L
LL1
LL2
LL3
SNF
VIT
LANDFILL
NEAR
SURFACE < 30 m
INTERMEDIATE
< 200 m
GEOLOGICAL
> 200 m
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPROPRIATE
UNACCEPTABLE

40. Selection of Waste Management Options
A multi-factor problem
Waste types, sites, policy, costs, population, stakeholder views…
Selected options must be consistent with national policy and strategy for waste management
Need to consider interdependencies with other predisposal and final disposal options
Adequate characterization of the wastes is essential
National policies for radioactive waste management will be a critical factor when selecting options for predisposal waste management. The presence or absence of regulations for clearance is one example of a predetermined option. In many cases, selected types of predisposal waste management facilities will be available, thus, options may already be identified. For example, incineration may be identified as the chosen alternative for volume reduction of combustible waste.
Interdependencies (or constraints) imposed by decisions already made in other steps of the waste management lifecycle must be clearly identified early in the process of selecting options.
As many choices between options will depend on the characteristics of the waste, it is critical to have an effective waste characterization program in place.

41. Summary Waste classification:
Defines several classes of waste based on their main characteristics; activity, half-life, volume
Provides essential input for the development of national waste management policy
Informs the choice of waste management option (e.g. storage followed by near-surface or geological disposal)

42. Thank you!